Daoist Philosophy and Literati Writings in Late Imperial China: A Case Study of The Story of the Stone

Introduction

Introduction When dissecting his philosophical orientation, Yuan Mei (1716–1798), a literary celebrity of the mid-Qing, made the following remarks: “If one asks me about the sources of my thinking, three parts [of it] come from Confucius and the Duke of Zhou, the other two parts originate in Zhuangzi.”1 The complementarity of the two systems in Yuan Mei’s philosophy is generally taken as a common feature of Chinese literati identity, although few have spelt it out so explicitly. Such a phenomenon assumed special prominence in late imperial China when Confucianism , Daoism, and Buddhism influenced each other in a syncretistic movement, and scholars affiliated with Confucianism by training often turned to Daoism and Buddhism for spiritual inspiration and alternative modes of existence. The prominence of such philosophical syncretism can be seen in the pervasive use of suffixes, such as daoren 道人 (often in reference to a man with Daoist inclinations2 ) and jushi 居士 (a lay Buddhist), in Confucian scholars’ courtesy names. Among the most renowned men of letters (mingshi 名士) from the late Ming to mid-Qing one can find few without such a suffix attached to their courtesy names. Thus, we have Tang Xianzu (1550–1616) as Qingyuan daoren, Fu Shan (1607– 1684) as Zhuyi daoren, Zheng Xie (1693–1765) as Banqiao daoren, and 1 Yuan Mei, “Shan ju jue ju,” Yuan Mei quan ji, v. 1, p. 161. 2 Despite its general reference to a Daoist, this term may also refer to a Buddhist adept from the Six Dynasties (222–589) to the Ming-Qing period (1368–1911). See Lin Guanfu’s discussion in Honglou meng zongheng tan, pp. 109–11. In chapter 39 of The Journey to the West, this term is used in reference to a Buddhist acolyte; see Wu Cheng’en, Xiyou ji, p. 350. 2 Daoist Philosophy and Literati Writings in Late Imperial China Gong Zizhen (1792–1841) as Dingan daoren; just as we have Tang Yin (1470–1523) as Liuru jushi, Li Zhi (1527–1602) as Wenling jushi, Yuan Hongdao (1568–1610) as Kongkong jushi, and Yuan Mei as Cangshan jushi. The list is endless. Even the Yongzheng emperor (r. 1723–1735), followed this trend, choosing Yuanming jushi as his courtesy name, whereas his younger brother Yunxi (1711–1758) chose Ziqiongya daoren. While a man’s name in imperial China was given by his parents at birth, his courtesy name was self-chosen often late in his life to reflect his political stand and ideological leaning; it was a kind of badge of self-identity. The prevalence of daoren and jushi in literati’s courtesy names, therefore, testifies to the pervasive influence of Daoism and Buddhism on their outlooks. Although jushi is generally taken to mean a lay Buddhist, all the jushi listed above, Tang Yin, Li Zhi, Yuan Hongdao, and Yuan Mei, showed strong Daoist inclinations. Moreover, the kind of Buddhism that appealed to most jushi during this period was the highly Sinicized Chan Buddhism. In its assimilation to Chinese culture, Chan incorporated many terminologies and concepts from Daoist philosophy.3 Small wonder scholars have repeatedly indicated that, philosophically, “Chan can hardly be distinguished from Daoism,” 4 and that it is “no more than Daoism in Buddhist garb.” 5 Consequently, just like the wide use of daoren in literati courtesy names, the frequent adoption of jushi also reflects Daoist (as well as Chan Buddhist) influence on scholars’ mentality. What is relevant to the discussion of The Story of the Stone (hereafter referred to as “the Stone”) is that these suffixes also appear in the courtesy and pen names of the two key figures related to the production of this masterpiece. Cao Xueqin (?–1763), to whom most scholars attribute the authorship of the Stone, took the courtesy name of Qinqi jushi according to Zhang Yiquan’s poetry collection Chunliutang shigao 3 For discussion of the Daoist impact on the development of Chinese Chan Buddhism and the affinity between these two philosophies, see Li Xia, Daojia yu chanzong; Xu Xiaoyue, Chan yu Lao-Zhuang; Wu Yi, Chan yu Lao-Zhuang. 4 Wu Yi, Chan yu Lao-Zhuang, p. 117. 5 Brook Ziporyn, The Penumbra Unbound: the Neo-Taoist Philosophy of Guo Xiang, p. 3. Introduction 3 (Poetry Collection Composed at the Spring Willow Hall; ZLHB, 24).6 Cao Yin (1658–1712), generally believed to be Cao Xueqin’s grandfather, whom most scholars believe to be a source of inspiration for the novelist, assumed...