The Age of Jackson and the Art of American Power, 1815-1848

20. The Mexican War

250 20 The Mexican War A more effectual means could not have been devised to encourage the enemy and protract the war than to advocate and adhere to their cause, and thus give them “aid and comfort.” James K. Polk If an earnest desire to save my country from ruin and disgrace be treason, then I am a traitor. Daniel King Experience proves that the man who obstructs a war in which his nation is engaged, no matter right or wrong, occupies no enviable place in life or history. Ulysses S. Grant I believe if we were to plant our batteries in Hell the damned Yankees would take them from us. Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna In warring against Mexico, the United States certainly appeared to enjoy overwhelming superiority by most measures of hard and soft power. The Mexican War 251 In just raw numbers, America’s 17 million people dwarfed Mexico’s 7 million. More vitally, an industrial revolution was rapidly transforming America’s economy and enriching an already middle-class society; virtually all Mexicans were peasants mired in mass poverty and feudalism. Most Americans could read and write; only Mexico’s elite enjoyed those skills. The American republic so far had resolved a series of political crises with compromises and expanded its electorate to include all white males; coups, authoritarianism, and violence beset Mexico’s political system. Most citizens of the United States considered themselves Americans despite their nation’s grave regional and racial divisions, although the importance of this identity varied greatly; only Mexico’s elite was clearly nationalistic, and the country was plagued by regional, racial, cultural, and linguistic chasms. When these political, economic, and social advantages were transformed into military power, the contrasts were just as striking. America’s industrial revolution mass-produced weapons, munitions, and provisions and, with rail and steam power, rapidly transported all this to distant army and navy forces; Mexico imported rather than made most of its weapons and equipment. American naval power dwarfed that of Mexico. American troops were all enthusiastic volunteers and were far better trained, led, fed, equipped, disciplined, and motivated than were Mexican troops, who were nearly all sullen conscripts. In particular, the quality of American cannons and crews far exceeded those of Mexico. Whether or not they were West Point graduates, most American officers were proficient in the science and art of military leadership; Mexico ’s officers were ill trained. Finally, America’s commanders repeatedly outgeneraled their Mexican opponents.¹ In retrospect, an American victory seems inevitable. Yet this was not what European military observers anticipated. They reckoned that Mexico had the edge. Certainly when the war began, Mexico’s army outnumbered America’s. Its officers and troops had far more military experience from trying to crush a series of rebellions. The Mexicans had a natural advantage fighting on the defensive in their own land. They could scour the countryside of food, forage, and livestock ahead of the invaders and could choose and fortify battle sites. When they withdrew, they were closer to most sources of supplies and reinforcements . In contrast, America’s government, as usual, entered the The Mexican War 252 war unprepared to fight and spent months raising, equipping, training , supplying, and transporting volunteer regiments to the distant fronts. Handicaps plagued both armies. Most soldiers shouldered muskets with poor range and accuracy. Disease killed many times more troops than battle. Water was often scarce and foul, and food was not much better. Draft animals and riding horses were increasingly hard to obtain and keep alive. Finally, the fierce patriotism and rivalries of Mexico’s elite prolonged the war long after its outcome was certain, thus causing the fruitless waste of treasure and lives. A potential wild card lurked in a war between the United States and Mexico. The president and congressional War Hawks had also rushed America to war’s brink with Britain over Oregon. If they plunged into the abyss, America would end up fighting two wars at once and could well lose both of them. Even if a war did not erupt with Britain, the Polk White House would have to battle Mexico with one military arm tied behind its back as long as the Oregon conflict festered. Fortunately, cooler heads in London prevailed. Prime Minister Robert Peel was forced to dissolve his government when Parliament split bitterly over the Corn Laws and free trade. John Russell tried to form a...