Century of Difference: How America Changed in the Last One Hundred Years

Notes

NOTES CHAPTER 1 1. “Italian Societies Parade,” New York Times, October 13, 1900, 14; “No Alien Labor on theTunnel,” ibid., January 23, 1900, 1; “Favors American Labor,”ibid.,January 4,1900,1;“Irishmen Fight Italians,”ibid.,August 12, 1900, 12;“Little Italy Disinfected . . . InhabitantsTaken by Surprise ,” ibid., July 11, 1900; “Italy Asks Reparation,” ibid., January 14, 1900, 4;“The Killing of Italians in Mississippi,” ibid., July 21, 1900, 5. 2. “Columbus Day Parade Set,”BronxTimes,October 10,2002,available at: www.bxtimes.com/News/2002/1010/Front_Page/059.html (accessed May 30, 2005). 3. As reported in Roth,“I Got a Scheme,” 79. 4. Bender,“NewYork inTheory.” 5. Citro, Cork, and Norwood, The 2000 Census:Interim Assessment; General Accounting Office, Census 2000:Design Choices;Anderson and Feinberg, Who Counts; Edmonston and Schultze, Modernizing the U.S.Census. 6. Ruggles et al., Integrated Public Use Microdata Series:Version 3.0. CHAPTER 2 1. Education Is Good Business (1947), General Pictures Production, available at Prelinger Archives: http://www.archive.org/details/Educatio1947 (accessed February 16, 2006). Note that the documentation does not establish the chamber’s sponsorship, which nevertheless can be inferred from the content. 2. Jencks and Riesman, The Academic Revolution; Hout, “The Politics of Mobility;” Fischer et al., Inequality by Design, 152–54. 3. The census did not actually ask for people’s education until 1940, so if we use the average educational level of people in the year of the cen- sus, we lose the early decades. Almost everyone was done with their schooling by their early twenties, so birth dates allow us to track the entire century of education.We mark each birth cohort by the year its members turned twenty-one. Using birth cohorts to see historical changes introduces slight distortions (such as the effects of differential mortality) but is unlikely to change any substantive conclusions. Finally , we do not have an estimate for 2001 because those born in 1980 had not yet completed their schooling. 4. The census initially coded years of education and then in 1980 switched to credentials. To reconcile the different schemes IPUMS coders created broad categories (for example, having completed one, two, three, or four years of school as one category), so deriving estimates from these categories required some interpolation. 5. See, for example, Kaestle, “Public Education”;Tyack, “Preserving the Republic by Educating Republicans”; Licht, Getting Work, ch. 5; Lassonde ,“Learning and Earning.” 6. Hochschild and Scovronick, The American Dream and the Public Schools. 7. Lieberson, A Piece of the Pie, 137–50. 8. Orfield, Losen, andWeld,“Losing Our Future.” 9. Church, “Collegiate Education,” 2531–32. Thomas Kane (“CollegeGoing and Inequality”) describes how subsequent changes in the costs and consequences of going to college in the last quarter of the twentieth century affected who enrolled and who did not. His main conclusion is that the gap between the affluent and the poor—already large in 1975—increased. Although the changing costs and changing payoffs of college are both implicated as probable causes of the trends, correlated factors, like a growing propensity of highly educated parents to invest a larger share of whatever money they have in their children ’s educations, cannot be ruled out in explaining the widening gap in attendance. The unmistakable point of Kane’s review, however, is that the asset that is the greatest contributor to growing economic inequality —education—became itself more unequally distributed between 1975 and the turn of the century. 10. Danziger and Gottschalk, America Unequal. 11. Yossi Shavit and Hans-Peter Blossfeld (“Persisting Barriers”) show that the gender pattern was not unique to the United States: women attained more education than men in most rich countries after 1980 (and in some as early as the mid-1960s). 12. See Fischer et al.,Inequality by Design,ch.8,for one review of research on race and academic testing. 13. Hout,“Educational Progress forAfricanAmericans and Latinos”;Conley , Being Black,Living in the Red. 14. James, “City Limits on Racial Equality”; Reardon and Yun, “The Changing Structure of School Segregation.” 274 Notes 15. For starters, see, for example, Zhou,“AreAsianAmericans Becoming ‘White’?”; Stevenson, Chen, and Lee, “Mathematics Achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American Children”; Schneider and Lee, “A Model forAcademic Success.” 16. Fischer et al., Inequality by Design, ch. 8. 17. Wilson, The Declining Significance of Race. Many studies document that discrimination declined but did not disappear. 18. Norman Nie, Jane Junn...