Slipping the Surly Bonds: Reagan's Challenger Address

chapter 2

chapter 2 Racing into Space: From Sputnik to Challenger On October 4, 1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik, and the space race was on. The original Sputnik was followed by another flight the next year, this one carrying a dog (named Laika). Soviet dominance in the early years seemed unquestioned. It was also threatening, both ideologically and militarily, to the United States. From Sputnik until the joint space mission in 1975, the Soviets and the Americans battled one another for technological and propagandistic advantage over the“last frontier.”Scientists of both nations, entranced with the possibilities of space exploration, worked amazing feats of technological progress at a dizzying pace. Because of its importance in both hot wars and the Cold War, however, space exploration has never been merely a matter of pure science but has also always involved both ideological and military elements.1 In a world governed by the logic of the Cold War, any technological advantage was presumed to have military applications; control of space was understood to be among the most important of any such uses.The space race thus became one way to understand the scientific elements of the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union. Victory in the space race was also seen as potentially vindicating one system and one way of life over the other, as technological superiority [31] racing into space was presumed to be evidence of ideological preeminence. Space thus also had important propaganda value and became as much a battle for public opinion—both internationally and domestically—as a technological rivalry. This understanding of space would have an enormous impact on the development of the American space program, and the relationship of space exploration to military applications would be consequential from Sputnik to Challenger. For the purposes of this study,then,there are two main themes running through the history of the space race,both of which had important implications for the development and management of the space shuttle and both of which are thus tied directly to Challenger.The first topic is the tension between military and civilian approaches to space (defense and intelligence versus pure science), which influenced the choice of missions and the technology designed to carry them out. The second theme is the role of space in the public’s imagination and its connection to public opinion—both real and imagined—in space policy, which offered opportunities for and at the same time placed constraints upon the space program.These subjects are important linkages that traverse the vast terrain of presidential activity from Sputnik to Challenger, and they thus recur throughout the history of that activity. Since John Kennedy’s call to put a human being on the moon,presidents have clearly identified themselves and their various administrations with space exploration. Like many of the rest of us, presidents love space. Space exploration allows them to freely use the metaphors of pioneering and frontiers; it enables them to comment with pride on America’s achievements; it lets them vaunt the wonders of technological progress; and it permits them to bask in the astronauts’ reflected glory. Space, in short, provides presidents with a powerful symbolic repertoire. However, to be effective, these symbols must also be univocal. That is, the symbolism of space must work to the president’s advantage by reflecting American technological expertise and the country’s dedication to exploration. Presidents do not want to be associated with technological failure or poor management decisions.Space works for chief executives when it is unambiguously successful and when its mysteries [32] chapter 2 and romanticism can be tapped metaphorically. Like other kinds of technology and other policies in general, space can work against chief executives who are blamed for failures. When it comes to space, our presidents have been, generally speaking, very lucky. To the Moon As far back as World War II, there was considerable international competition over technological advances in rocketry, but that contest escalated with the inception of the Cold War. From the earliest days, tension existed between those who saw space primarily as a locus for scientific exploration and those who saw it as an opportunity for military advantage.Because it was easier to obtain funding for national defense than for pure science,scientists often pursued their interests as members of teams sponsored by various military establishments.2 Early in the Cold War the focus of...