Deaf Students and the Qualitative Similarity Hypothesis: Understanding Language and Literacy Development

3 English Language Learners

54 3 English Language Learners The U.S. Department of Education report, the Condition of Education 2011 (Aud et al., 2011), estimates that, in 2009, approximately 21% (or 11.2 million) of children ages 5 to 17 years spoke a language other than English at home (i.e., language minority learners), and 5% (or 2.7 million) spoke English with difficulty (i.e., English language learners [ELLs]; see a review of the different terms associated with ELLs in Paul & Wang, 2012, Chapter 9). Seventy-three percent of those children speaking English with difficulty spoke Spanish. Although ELLs are a heterogeneous group with a wide range of individual differences (e.g., many children who are d/Deaf and hard of hearing are also ELLs), in general, 71% of ELLs from 2004 to 2007 were performing below grade level, and they continue to be among the nation’s lowest achieving students (Short & Fitzsimmons, 2007). Improving the literacy skills of ELLs is critical, particularly considering the increasing prevalence of ELLs in U.S. school-age children. For example, based on the most recent data from the National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition (NCELA) (2009), in 2008–2009, the P–12 growth in the United States since 1997–1998 was 7.22%, whereas the ELL growth was 51.01%. In this chapter, we compare and contrast the program models, theory, and research on both hearing and d/Deaf ELLs to identify the similarities and differences between these two populations. We assert that both hearing and d/Deaf ELLs learn to read and write English (as a second language) in a way qualitatively similar to that of their typically developing monolingual English-speaking peers, but at a quantitatively different—that is, slower—rate. NATIONAL LITERACY PANEL FOR ELLS In 2002, the U.S. Department of Education charged a panel of 13 experts with the task of reviewing the literature on the literacy development of ELLs. The published report of the National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and Youth (August & Shanahan, 2006) examined quantitative and qualitative research in each of the five components of effective reading instruction identified by the National Reading Panel English Language Learners 55 (2000): phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension. Approximately 1,800 studies from 1980 to 2003 were initially identified through the literature, and 293 of those met the methodological criteria established by the panel and thus were included in the report. The report concludes that effective instructional techniques for monolingual English-speaking students (e.g., Adams, 1990; Chall, 1983, 1996; McGuinness, 2004, 2005; National Early Literacy Panel, 2008; National Reading Panel, 2000) are also applicable to ELLs, although modifications and accommodations are needed for maximum results. For example, certain components of literacy, such as efficient word recognition and satisfactory levels of reading comprehension, cannot be fully developed until precursor skills, such as proficient decoding and orthographic skills, are acquired. Particularly, the importance of oral English proficiency is highlighted. In this chapter we summarize the panel’s report and review the literature written from the publication of the report to the present. PROGRAM MODELS In the United States, Arizona was the first state to offer bilingual education in the 1960s. Bilingual education was favored by policies and practice in the 1970s and 1980s, during which many ELLs were taught partially or entirely in their native language and transitioned into English-only instruction in elementary grades (see the review by Salvin & Cheung, 2005). In 1998, Proposition 227 was passed in California to replace existing bilingual instruction with a structured English immersion for a period of no more than one year. Similar legislation went into effect in Arizona and Massachusetts. The passage of No Child Left Behind by the U.S. Congress in 2001 emphasized accountability in English only and offered no support for native language learning for ELLs. Other than the heritage language programs, in which bilingual education is designed as a way to preserve or show respect for a given language, bilingual education is typically offered to help ELLs who are genuinely struggling with English. Currently, there are two major strategies for teaching ELLs in the United States: English immersion and bilingual education (Office for Civil Rights, 2012; Salvin & Cheung, 2005). At times, newcomer programs are offered for newly arrived immigrants in self-contained classrooms before they enter traditional English immersion or bilingual education classrooms. There are different forms of English immersion programs: Some place ELLs immediately in classes with monolingual English speaking students (i.e., submersion) whereas others...