Environmental Activism and the Urban Crisis: Baltimore, St. Louis, Chicago

Notes

IntroductIon 1. William J. Haskins, “Speech to the National League of Cities,” 1978, box 242, folder 4, Sierra Club Records. 2. Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996). Although Sugrue in many ways set the terms for the current paradigm in postwar urban history, Arnold Hirsch was an important precursor. See Arnold R. Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940–1960 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). On civil rights, see Matthew Countryman, Up South: Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006), and Clarence Lang, Grassroots at the Gateway: Class Politics and Black Freedom Struggle in St. Louis, 1936–75 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2009). On politics, see Kevin Michael Kruse, White Flight: Atlanta and the Making of Modern Conservatism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005); Matthew D. Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006); and Robert O. Self, American Babylon: Race and the Struggle for Postwar Oakland (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003). This literature has also been influenced, directly and indirectly, by urban sociology. See especially Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), and William J. Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). 3. Although adherents to the cultural explanations for black poverty are isolated in a small group of think tanks, their work is not only more reflective of popular, primarily suburban white, attitudes toward inner-city African Americans and poverty, they have also been extraordinarily influential within policy circles. Since the 1970s, a host of policies , from the Welfare Reform Act of 1996 to the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, have their roots in work done at think tanks like the Manhattan Institute. See Alice O’Connor, Notes 178 Notes to the Introduction “The Privatized City: The Manhattan Institute, the Urban Crisis, and the Conservative Counterrevolution in New York,” Journal of Urban History 34, no. 2 (2008): 333–353. Many of these conservatives were originally Great Society liberals who became disenchanted with federal urban policy in the late 1960s. See Myron Magnet, The Dream and the Nightmare: The Sixties’ Legacy to the Underclass (New York: Morrow, 1993); James Q. Wilson and Joint Center for Urban Studies, The Metropolitan Enigma: Inquiries into the Nature and Dimensions of America’s Urban Crisis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968); and Charles A. Murray, Losing Ground: American Social Policy, 1950–1980 (New York: Basic Books, 1984). 4. Joseph Heathcott, “The City Quietly Remade,” Journal of Urban History 34, no. 2 (2008): 221–242; Alison Isenberg, Downtown America: A History of the Place and the People Who Made It (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004); Wendell E. Pritchett, “Which Urban Crisis?” Journal of Urban History 34, no. 2 (2008): 266–286. 5. Arnold R. Hirsch, “Massive Resistance in the Urban North: Trumbull Park, Chicago , 1953–1966,” Journal of American History 82, no. 2 (1995): 522–550; Kruse, White Flight. 6. On the response to rapid urbanization, see Martin V. Melosi, Garbage in the Cities: Refuse, Reform, and the Environment, 1880–1980 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1981); David Stradling, Smokestacks and Progressives: Environmentalists, Engineers and Air Quality in America, 1881–1951 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); and Joel A. Tarr, The Search for the Ultimate Sink: Urban Pollution in Historical Perspective (Akron, OH: University of Akron Press, 1996). On the role of nature in shaping cities, see Ari Kelman, A River and Its City: The Nature of Landscape in New Orleans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003); Matthew Gandy, Concrete and Clay: Reworking Nature in New York City (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002); Matthew W. Klingle, Emerald City: An Environmental History of Seattle (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007); and Michael Rawson, Eden on the Charles: The Making of Boston (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010). On imperial relationships , see William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: Norton, 1991), and David Stradling, Making Mountains: New York City and the Catskills (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007). On inequalities, see Andrew Hurley, Environmental Inequalities: Class, Race, and Industrial Pollution in Gary, Indiana, 1945– 1980 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), and Andrew Needham, “Power Lines: Urban Space, Energy Development and the...