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C Ch ha ap pt te er r 7 7 Asians in America: Some Historical and Contemporary Patterns JOHN W. FRAZIER INTRODUCTION The term “Asian” describes a substantial range of cultures spread over thousands of miles of the globe. Even descriptive Asian sub-phrases can be deceiving. For example, “East Asian,” meant to refer to people in one geographic region, actually describes distinctly different cultures separated by the great distance from Pakistan to southern India. Grouping dissimilar cultures into a single class obviously has drawbacks. However, it facilitates addressing three greatly different cultures as Asians in America: the Chinese (who initially brought to the U.S. numerous dialects that were not understandable to one another), the Japanese, and the Filipinos. Although from very different cultures, these immigrants to America were viewed monolithically as “Orientals” whose presence created an “Asiatic Coolies Invasion” (Organized Labor, 1906). These Asians shared more than locations in the Pacific. Each found resentment rooted in fear, and racism related to the contexts that existed at the time of their arrival in the U.S. The result was prejudice, discrimination, and hardship, as well as actions that halted the future entry of their people. Prior to the Great Depression, thousands of Asians had entered America. However, by the beginning of World War II, Asian immigration had been reduced to a trickle, and would remain so until major changes in U.S. immigration law in the 1960s. The purpose of this chapter is to examine the historical and contemporary patterns of Asian immigration to the U.S. The first section examines Asian immigration from the mid-19th century through the Great Depression. The historical contexts for early Asian immigration and their eventual exclusion are provided. The second section examines the massive influx of Asians to the U.S. commencing in the mid-1960s and continuing into the early 21st century. The impacts of changing Asian-American landscapes are presented in this section. ASIANS IN AMERICA PRIOR TO 1965 In 1845, American journalist John Louis O’Sullivan set forth the concept of Manifest Destiny as a defense for U.S. expansionist behavior. By the time gold was discovered in Sutter’s Creek, attracting prospectors of all ethnic backgrounds (white Easterners as well as foreigners) to California, politicians and business lenders endorsed the concept as a God-given right for the democracy inhabiting North America. The public of a young and expanding nation were easily convinced of their moral, as well as economic, superiority. They, too, endorsed as right, even obligation, this mission of expansion Westward, which would result in so much European progress. Constantly improving technology and advancements on the frontier strengthened these convictions. Prior to 1965 and, in fact, before World War II, three groups from the Pacific entered the United States in distinctive waves. These were the Chinese, Japanese, and Filipinos. Each provided cheap labor vital to the expanding U.S. economy. 80 John W. Frazier The Chinese The Chinese were the first Asian ethnic grouping to enter the U.S. in large numbers. By 1850, although Hispanic California was already “whitening” from Eastern migration, the Gold Rush greatly increased that flow and also attracted to California for the first time a large influx of Chinese. Chronic poverty and strife had pushed the Cantonese of China towards “Gold Mountain” in an effort to become rich and return home. Initially, the numbers were moderate: only 50 Chinese resided in California in the 1840s. That changed quickly as more Chinese sought riches and others were recruited as laborers. By 1852, the Chinese population of San Francisco had reached 25,000 and continued to grow for decades. The former Chief of Police, writing in 1931, recalled “the Chinese were coming in from the Orient at about 1,400 on every steamer” (Cook, 1931, p. 1). By 1876, more than 150,000 Chinese had entered the U.S. and 116,000 resided in California (McClain, 1994). Given the initial labor shortages, especially for the difficult and hard work associated with field labor and construction, it is little surprise that the Chinese were welcomed, as noted by Norton: Here were men who would do the drudgery of life at a reasonable wage, when every other man had but one idea—to work at the mines for gold.... The result was that the Chinaman was welcomed; he was considered quite indispensable. He was in demand as a laborer, as a carpenter, as a cook; the restaurants which he established were well-patronized; his agricultural...

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