The Empire of the Self: Self-Command and Political Speech in Seneca and Petronius

1. Senecan Philosophy and the Psychology of Command

chapter one Senecan Philosophy and the Psychology of Command Two themes in Seneca’s philosophy are imperium, conceived of as power, command , and empire, and self-address. Seneca frequently uses self-address in his reevaluation of political and military power.1 Seneca’s subordination of military and political imperium to personal imperium may be explicated by moving from the geographic space and history of the Roman Empire into the core of the Stoic self—the soul, or animus—and then out again to witness the performances of Seneca’s philosophical exemplars. This journey reveals and addresses the tension between two forms of power, imperial command and self-command, which lies at the heart of Seneca’s philosophical writings. He reevaluates the idea of imperium on several levels—political, personal, and linguistic. Returning to the Senecan text that opens the introduction, Seneca’s narration of a trip around the Bay of Naples, we find in letter 51, a letter perhaps most famous for its description of the revelers at the summer resort of Baiae (51.4), Seneca’s specific condemnation of the luxuria of the place, which quickly becomes a general indictment of all vices (vitia) and an opportunity for Seneca to urge Lucilius to continually guard against all pleasures (voluptates, 51.13). His consideration of the present condition of Baiae takes him back two 24 Soul-Shaping Speech centuries to the Second Punic War. Hannibal may have ravaged Italy, but he was eventually defeated, not by Roman troops, but by the allurements of the region. Seneca offers the example of Hannibal’s quick corruption and “weakening ” during a winter in Campania as an example of how easily even the most austere warriors can be conquered by alluring vices (51.5).2 Seneca urges Lucilius to play the soldier against the voluptates. This soldiering is more demanding than the conventional, however. There must be constant vigilance in this war, as Seneca warns: “We also must be soldiers, with a type of military service in which rest and retirement are never given: above all, the pleasures, which, as you see, are cruel and pillage and bring people’s naturally strong character over to their side, must be beaten down” (51.6).3 Daily personal struggles are more demanding than, and thus superior to, Hannibal’s military campaign; yielding to the enemy vices brings more danger, and persevering against them brings more rewards. Seneca writes, If we were to do what Hannibal did, and pay attention to the care of the body during a break in the military campaign and forget about war, everyone would justly find fault with our untimely idleness, which puts victory in danger— especially for one who has not yet conquered. This is less permitted for us than for those who followed the Carthaginian standards: more danger remains for us if we yield, and there is also harder work if we press on. (Ep. 51.7)4 Seneca links his journey around Campania with the “softening” that affected Hannibal in the same region more than two centuries earlier. In this way, Seneca demonstrates how he must face the same difficulties as an empire-building and, from the Romans’ point of view, potentially destroying general. Yet the philosopher has the intellectual skills necessary to defeat the allurements that conquered Hannibal. In this case, all that means is simply having the good sense to leave after one day (51.1). Yet Seneca also notes that Roman generals were wise enough to build their villas away from Baiae. Marius, Pompey, and Caesar enjoyed their leisure time away from the rigors of empire building by looking down on Baiae from the cliffs above (51.11).5 According to Seneca, Cato never could have dwelled in the region (51.12). Thus, Seneca establishes an important link between the dangers of the geography of the Roman Empire , the fates of various generals, and his own philosophical travel and development. While Seneca’s “defeat” of Baiae came easily, he describes himself as nevertheless engaged in a continual struggle. He is locked in battle with For- Senecan Philosophy and the Psychology of Command 25 tune, but he defiantly declares that he will not surrender and be forced to “carry out the orders” of this capricious general (51.8).6 Fortune is not Seneca ’s only adversary. The passions (adfectus) and pleasures (voluptates) threaten to tear Seneca apart as they battle for authority over him: “If...