The Evolution of Obesity

Index

383 Index Abdominal fat, 261–63, 267–70, 274 Accidents, 37–38 Acute-phase responses, 90–91 Adaptive responses, 5, 7, 18, 317; definition of, 92–93; diet and, 52–54; evolutionary, 23, 40, 91, 92–93, 265; to food scarcity, 10; gene polymorphisms and, 19, 293; to infection, 90; leptin and, 184; to maintain homeostasis , 93, 94; mismatch between environment and, 15, 23, 90–110, 289– 90, 291, 327; resting as, 98–99; sex differences in obesity and, 265–66; viability and, 95, 228, 328 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 139, 142, 145, 146, 153, 157, 201, 203, 204 Adipocytes, 245, 246–47, 263, 271 Adipokines, 249–50, 254–59; secretion by visceral fat, 262 Adiponectin, 257–58 Adipose tissue, 7–8, 13, 17, 98, 155, 244–47, 263–64; brown fat, 245, 320; composition of, 246–47, 263; endocrine function and, 248–50; energy storage in, 158–60; functions of, 244–50; leptin secretion from, 203–4; steroid hormones and, 252– 53, 263, 271; vitamin D and, 251–52; white, 245. See also Fat, body Adoption studies, 292 Agouti-related protein, 174, 196, 241 Alcohol intake, 116, 153 Aldosterone, 186 Allostasis, 12, 15, 91, 94–96, 211 Allostatic load, 13, 15, 17, 91, 96–97, 110, 211, 264, 325, 328 Allostatic overload, 303 Amylase gene, 61–62, 164–66 Anabolism, 139, 145 Ancestors, early: cooperation, tolerance, and eating behavior of, 78–79; diet of, 99–101; evolution of, 45–67, 69–70; predation and, 83; tool use by, 74, 76, 85, 86, 104 Androgens, 253, 271, 286. See also Testosterone Anticipatory responses, 16, 188, 206– 25, 227–28, 230. See also Cephalicphase responses Apolipoprotein A-IV, 189 Appetite, 16, 17, 186–205, 215; brain, satiety and, 194–200; cephalic-phase responses in, 232–36; cholecystokinin and, 189–90, 196, 237; effect of gutbrain peptides on, 189–92; fuel oxidation theory of, 232; ghrelin and, 191– 92, 232–35; glycemic index and, 64; leptin and, 178–80, 183, 193, 197, 242; to nutrient deficiencies, 186–87; during pregnancy, 276; regulation of, 192–93; satiation, satiety and, 188– 92; satiety, energy balance and, 239– 42; for sodium, 186–87, 194, 219 Arcuate nucleus, 196, 197 Artificial sweeteners, 117, 173 Assortative mating, 294, 313–14 Attractin, 328–29 384 INDEX Australopithecines, 45–49, 59, 74, 83, 86 Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 40, 42, 64, 121, 146–50, 152; during activity vs. sleep, 149–50; body size and, 147–49, 160–61; caloric intake and, 147, 161; food restriction and, 151; measurement of, 152 Binge eating, 292 Biological energy, 138 Biology, 4–10, 317; of fat, 7–8, 17, 244– 64; thermodynamics and, 15, 136, 140–43 Bipedalism, 45–47 Birth defects, 287–88 Birth weight, 5, 17, 18, 41, 285; heart disease risk and, 300; macrosomia, 41, 288–89, 307; metabolic syndrome risk and, 303; neonatal fatness, 5, 17– 18, 41, 279–83, 290, 307, 319–21; obesity risk and, 305 Bitter taste, 218, 219 Blood-brain barrier, 171–72, 184, 186, 191, 195, 222, 272 Body mass index (BMI), 24–26, 28–29, 324; calcium intake and, 100; cardiovascular fitness and, 325; extreme obesity and, 26, 30; heritability of, 292, 313; maternal, macrosomia and, 41; menarche and, 284, 285; mortality and, 34–36, 37–38; predation pressure and, 83–84; race/ethnicity and, 26, 29, 34, 263, 293, 310; visceral fat and, 262, 263; work absenteeism , illness and, 114–15 Body morph type, 313–14 Body size: advantages of larger, 50–52, 66; appetite and, 192–93; basal metabolic rate and, 147–49, 160–61; energy intake and, 50–51, 160–61; evolution and, 47–50, 66 Bonobos, 68–69, 80–83 Brain: appetite, satiety and, 194–200; cephalic-phase responses and, 220–23; expensive tissue hypothesis of evolution of, 64–66, 151–53; fatty acids and development of, 107–8; gut-brain peptides, 16, 173–84, 189–92, 206; hierarchical organization of, 198–99, 205; leptin and, 178–79, 183; neural circuits of feeding behavior, 194–99, 205, 242; postnatal growth of, 280– 81; shift of energy expenditure from gut to, 65–66, 152 Brain size, 319–22; dietary fat and, 106– 7, 320; evolution of, 47–50, 66, 79, 319; meals and, 74–78, 79, 89; metabolic rate and, 64–65, 152–53, 321; social complexity theory of, 78 Brain stem, 196–99, 205, 223 Breast milk, 19, 321; fat content of, 108–9, 276–77, 279; immunefunction molecules in, 281–82, 321; leptin in, 182; vitamin...