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3 Chapter 1 The Persian Era (539-332 B.C.E.) The Persian, or Restoration, era witnessed the renewal of Jewish life in Judaea following a hiatus of some fifty years.l The primary and almost exclusive sources for this era, the books of Ezra and Nehemiah (henceforth Ezra-Nehemiah), inform us of the return ofthousands of exiles from Babylonia who, despite innumerable obstacles, succeeded in rebuilding Jerusalem and its Temple.2 The fact that there was a return at all should not be taken for granted. In 722 B.C.E., the northern kingdom ofIsrael was destroyed and its inhabitants, dispersed. Lacking a strong leadership, a well-defined communal framework, and presumably the possibility of returning to their homeland, these exiles eventually became fully assimilated into their new milieu. 1. We will be using the term "Judaea" for the entire period under discussion, as this was the official title of much, if not all, of the country for most of this time. A related term, "Yehud," was used in the Persian and early Hellenistic eras and in "Coele Syria" for a time in the third and second centuries. Only in 135 C.E., in the aftermath of the Bar-Kokhba revolt, did Hadrian officially change the name to "Syria Palaestina," even though Herodotus had already made use ofthe term "Palestine." See SchUrer, History, 1:514; M. Stem, GLAJJ, 1:233, 290, and II:11-15, 168-170, 217-220; Feldman, "Some Observations ," 6-14; and Cohen, Beginnings ofJewisimess, 72-73. It should be noted, however, that in much of the period under discussion "Judaea" had a dual meaning-a limited reference to the southern part of the country (in contrast to the coastal region, Samaria, the Galilee, and Peraea) and a broader one referring to the entire country. To clarify this distinction , we will use the spelling "Judea" for the more limited geographical meaning and "Judaea" for the broader one. 2. Although Bright's History ofIsrael, 360-403, remains a classic, there are a number of other excellent surveys: Ackroyd, Israel under Babylonia and Persia, 162-344, and "Jewish Community," 130-161; Widengren, "Persian Period," 489-538; Williamson, Ezra and Nehemiah, 48-76; and Grabbe, Judaism, 1:27-145. The latter two contain rich and relatively up-to-date bibliographies, and Grabbe includes broad discussions of central issues. See also Blenkinsopp, Ezra-Nehemiah, for an extensive bibliography . Owing to the paucity of remains in both the archaeological and the literary domains, there are contrasting assessments of the degree of continuity in settlement in post-586 Judaea. While E. Stem, Archaeology of the Land of the Bible, 303-311, 348-350, offers a minimalist picture, Barstad, The Myth ofthe Empty Land, claims that the archaeological remains attest to a significant continuity. 4 FROM CYRUS TO THE HASMONEANS Figure 1. The Persian Empire. The Babylonian exiles returned after 536 B.C.E. in significant enough numbers to initiate social, political, and religious renewal. Both external and internal factors favored the Restoration. One factor that contributed to the successful return of the Judaean exiles under Cyrus was that Jerusalem had never been resettied by the Babylonians after the conquest of 586, and there was thus no foreign body in the city that might have prevented their return. This situation obviously facilitated the returnees' repossession of the city a half century later.3 Of more consequence, however, was the dramatically innovative Persian policy that allowed, and even encouraged, subject peoples to restore their national and religious institutions while in exile, thereby providing them with an indispensable frame of reference for the Restoration (Fig. 1).4 Moreover, Persian authorities aided in the return: Safe passage was afforded, regular communication with those remaining behind in Babylonia was facilitated via the Persian royal road system,S and local leaders were appointed as Persian officials (e.g., Nehemiah) or at least given official support for their missions (e.g., Ezra). The Persian govemment also extended financial aid for the construction of the Temple, helped defray the costs of sacrificial offerings, and granted tax privileges to Temple personnel. The Jews, for their part, generally responded to this support by expressing confidence in the imperial government and fully cooperating with it. These close ties with the Persian authorities had a profound impact on Jerusalem's destiny and character. 3. Bickerman, From Ezra to the Last of the Maccabees, 3-10. 4. See Olmstead, History ofthe Persian Empire, 34-58. and Dandamaev and Lukonin, Culture and Social Institutions, 292-360...

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