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Legitimacy and Cooperation 113 19. Tom R. Tyler & John M. Darley, Building a Law-Abiding Society: Taking Public Views About Morality and the Legitimacy of Legal Authorities into Account When Formulating Substantive Law, 28 HOFSTRA L. REV. 707, 714–17 (2000) (discussing legitimacy as shaping “obe[dience of] laws because [people] regard deferring to social authorities as part of the obligations associated with citizenship”). 20. TOM. R. TYLER & STEVEN L. BLADER, COOPERATION IN GROUPS 143–68 (2000) [hereinafter TYLER & BLADER, COOPERATION] (observing that procedural justice affirms the relationship between people and groups by “showing that the group to which they belong is . . . valuable . . . and that the group values them”). 21. See id. 22. Cf. Wesley G. Skogan, Asymmetry in the Impact of Encounters with Police, 16 POLICING & SOC’Y 99, 118–19 (2006) (finding that citizen evaluations of police services are asymmetrically influenced by perceptions of negative treatment). 23. See BAYLEY & MENDELSOHN, supra note 6, at 109–42 (1969) (finding ethnicity, but not sex or social class, correlated with negative perception of police); RONALD WEITZER & STEVEN A. TUCH, RACE AND POLICING IN AMERICA 74–123 (2006) (examining views of racialized policing and perceptions of unequal justice); Steven A. Tuch & Ronald Weitzer, The Polls—Trends: Racial Differences in Attitudes Toward the Police, 61 PUB. OPINION Q. 642, 647– 48 (1997) (discussing Los Angeles–area and national studies on Blacks’ versus Whites’ perceptions and experiences of police brutality). 24. See WEITZER & TUCH, supra note 23, at 119–23 (discussing roles of mass media and neighborhood crime concerns in shaping perceptions of racialized policing by Blacks and Hispanics ); Faye Crosby, Stephanie Bromley & Leonard Saxe, Recent Unobtrusive Studies of Black and White Discrimination and Prejudice: A Literature Review, 87 PSYCHOL. BULL. 546 (1980) (reviewing studies on anti-Black prejudice); Jeffrey Fagan & Garth Davies, Policing Guns: Order Maintenance and Crime Control in New York, in GUNS, CRIME, AND PUNISHMENT IN AMERICA 21 (Bernard E. Harcourt ed., 2003); Jeffrey Fagan & Garth Davies, Street Stops and Broken Windows: Terry, Race, and Disorder in New York City, 28 FORDHAM URB. L.J. 457, 489–96 (2000) [hereinafter Fagan & Davies, Street Stops] (analyzing New York City study showing “greater intensity of enforcement and over-enforcement against minority citizens” and suggesting “conflation of race, poverty, and disorder in policing policy”); Leonard Saxe et al., The Visibility of Illicit Drugs: Implications for Community-Based Drug Control Strategies, 91 AM. J. PUB. HEALTH 1987, 1991–93 (2001) (discussing how differences in predictors for drug use versus visible drug sales affect policy). 25. TYLER & HUO, supra note 16, at 5 (“In recent years the perception has grown that the relationship between the public and legal authorities is becoming more negative.”); GARY LAFREE, LOSING LEGITIMACY: STREET CRIME AND THE DECLINE OF SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS IN AMERICA (1998) (discussing postwar crime trends and impact on social and political institutions); Tom R. Tyler, Public Mistrust of the Law: A Political Perspective, 66 U. CIN. L. REV. 847, 848–53 (1998) [hereinafter Tyler, Public Mistrust] (“Recently, less than 10% of the American public expressed ‘a great deal’ of confidence in the American legal system.”). 26. See, e.g., Tyler, Public Mistrust, supra note 25, at 853 (discussing public opinion polls showing dissatisfaction with courts in general and local courts in particular). 27. JAMES GAROFALO, U.S. DEP’T OF JUSTICE, PUBLIC OPINION ABOUT CRIME: THE ATTITUDES OF VICTIMS AND NONVICTIMS IN SELECTED CITIES 28 (1977) (reporting, from National Crime Survey results, a “very large” gap between White and Black perceptions of police performance); HOWARD SCHUMAN ET AL., RACIAL ATTITUDES IN AMERICA 139–62 (1985) (discussing survey results on civil rights issues); Lawrence D. Bobo & Devon 114 Tom R. Tyler and Jeffrey Fagan Johnson, A Taste for Punishment: Black and White Americans’ Views on the Death Penalty and the War on Drugs, 1 DU BOIS REV. 151, 156–57 (2004) (discussing “substantial differences between Blacks and Whites” on views of police behavior and prosecutor and court treatment); Michael J. Hindelang, Public Opinion Regarding Crime, Criminal Justice, and Related Topics, 11 J. RES. CRIME & DELINQ. 101 (1974); W. S. Wilson Huang & Michael S. Vaughn, Support and Confidence: Public Attitudes Toward the Police, in AMERICANS VIEW CRIME AND JUSTICE (Timothy J. Flanagan & Dennis R. Longmire eds., 1996). 28. See Bobo & Johnson, supra note 27, at 168–72. 29. Jeffrey Fagan, Crime and Neighborhood Change, in UNDERSTANDING CRIME TRENDS 81 (Arthur S. Goldberger & Richard Rosenfeld eds., 2008); Kenneth C. Land, Patricia L. McCall & Lawrence E. Cohen, Structural Covariates of Homicide Rates: Are There Any Invariances Across Time and Social...

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