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CHAPTER 5 What Identity Is Worth: The Interrelationship Explored I believe inpride of race and lineage and self:I n pride ofselfso deep as to scorn injustice to other selves. -W. E. B. DuBo~s D u r i n g this research journey, I have provided the historical foundation for the interest in the concept of self among African Americans along with the dominant themes in the research literature that have tried to address the many issues growing out of that interest. With a focus on two prominent self-concepts, self-esteem and group identity, I examined the theoretical orientations and empirical literature that have a bearing on these two selfconcepts . In doing this, my attempt was to clarify the many confusing issues and myriad problems associated with these concepts. The research literature for the two self-concepts showed considerable overlap; however, there are also marked differences in theories used to explainthe phenomenon, in research designs employed, and in research questions posed. Thus, I performed separate inquiries into each construct and, by doing this, I was able to arrive at some verifying conclusions, some rather surprising findings, and some areas in need of greater attention. Concerning self-worth, in brief, I provided evidence for the position that African Americans have a strong feeling of self-pride and that this sense of pride extends over time and is shared to different degrees by various class elements in the African American community, depending upon the measure ofpride observed. Concerning class, those of a higher class possess a stronger sense of self-worth. Likewise, African Americans demonstrate a strong attachment to the African American collective, which is manifested over time. Class position (education and income) influences this attachment to some degree. For example, those of lower income tend to feel closer to elites, but there are no appreciable differences between income groups in terms of closeness to What Identity Is Worth 107 the masses. O n the other hand, the lesser educated African American adults are more likely to have a greater closeness to the masses, but those with the most education showed less closeness to the elites as compared to the other education groups. In short, all of these relationships must be interpreted in light of the fact that African Americans of different class standings have a strong attachment to self and to the group. However, in a comparison of categories, there were differences. Contrary to the case for self-esteem, those with a lower class standing had a stronger attachment to the group. Although a number of hypotheses have suggested a positive relationship between these two self-concepts, little research has been conducted. At this point, and due partly to data limitations, the available evidence has not provided convincing answers to the questions of whether there is an association between the two concepts, such that one leads to the other, or whether there is reciprocal causation. In this chapter, using data collected over four points in time, I present information to shed light on these issues. Moreover, I address the issue of the stability of these constructs over time and their other measurement properties. Self-esteem is produced by microprocesses in the African American community, which may help shield it from institutional inequality. O n the other hand, group identity is partly produced by cultural and interpersonal processes within the African American community. It is also produced by institutional inequality through many structural forces and the perception that white supremacy militates against the achievements of African Americans (Hughes & Demo, 1989). It is then reasonable to assume a relationship between these two constructs. What is quite striking about the past studies is that few have examined this relationship empirically, but many have touted its importance. Usually, it is assumed that a relationship exists between self-esteem and group identity. In some instances, one construct is used as a substitute for the other. In concrete terms, the findings of group identity studies often form the basis for inferences about self-esteem and vice versa (Cross, 1991). Further, some have predicted that not only are these two constructs associated but that one leads to the other. That is, group identity leads to self-worth (e.g., Porter & Washington, 1979). This idea was said to be derived from social identity theory and elaborations thereof (Crocker &Major, 1989; Phinney, 1990; Phinney & Onwughalu, 1996). Crocker and Luhtanen (1990, p. 60) stated that Social identity theory posits that individuals are motivated to achieve or maintain a high level of...

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