In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:

In a story retold many times, after the establishment of the monastic order the maternal aunt of the Buddha, named Mahapajati, approached him about the possibility of creating an order of nuns. Her request was initially refused, so she used an attendant of the Buddha named Ananda to intervene for her and to press the case for an order of nuns. In pressing the case for women, Ananda got the Buddha to admit that women were capable of attaining enlightenment. Thereafter, the Buddha reluctantly agreed to admit women to the order, although he did issue a prophecy that Buddhism would only last for five hundred years instead of the one thousand years it would have survived without the inclusion of women.1 This story exemplifies certain attitudes toward women in ancient Indian culture. On the one hand, women were seen religiously as just as capable as men at attaining liberation. On the other, women were also viewed as a potential threat to males living a monastic life. In order to maintain the integrity of the monastic institution, the Buddha instituted additional regulations that placed women under the control of males. The cultural assumptions were that women cannot control themselves, and male dominance is necessary for social stability. The story also reflects a reconciliation and compromise negotiated among various factions within the early monastic order.2 Nonetheless, recent scholars are skeptical about the historical accuracy of this story, because it is unusually misogynist or can be read to support such an attitude. It is equally plausible that the Buddha intended to establish a SaNgha for men and women from the start of his religious movement. There is textual evidence that after his enlightenment, the Buddha intended to continue living in order for a monastic community of both men and women to become successfully established with lay male and female supporters.3 How would this success be measured ? When men and women were practicing the discipline rigorously, had thoroughly learned the doctrines, and were capable of instructing others in a dual-gender monastic community—this could be termed a complete success. 110 6 The Feminine Narrative in Buddhism In order to understand the types of assumptions and attitudes about women suggested by Buddhist literature, it will be helpful to place these Buddhist attitudes within the wider context of Indian culture of the period. Women in Ancient India Buddhism arose during a period when so-called Brahmanism was influential in Indian culture. This type of religious practice, named after the Brahmin priestly caste that controlled its ritual system, was fundamentally patriarchal, ethnic, family -oriented, and life-affirming, with an emphasize on progeny, material and economic prosperity, and a desire for personal longevity. In her role as a virtuous wife, a woman could help her husband achieve these goals of life. And since a male could not perform sacrifices unless he was married, a wife played an important role maintaining the social and cosmic orders. Prior to the advent of Buddhism, Indian women of the upper strata of society could become scholars, poets, teachers, and complete the rite of initiation. There were also sacrifices and festivals performed only by women to ensure the fertility of cattle, secure good husbands for their daughters, and celebrate the harvest. Although there were exceptions, most women were not given any extensive education , resulting in an ever-widening disparity between the sexes and increasing the differentiation between sexual roles. Nonetheless, a woman was highly respected in her role as a wife, if she was virtuous and fertile. Moreover, a wife possessed the ability to function as an instrument of immortality because she could give her husband sons who would perform rates for the father and his ancestors. Despite her high standing reflected in her roles of wife and mother, there is ample evidence of negative views about women during the formative period of Indian culture. In the sacred scriptures of the Rig Veda, for instance, the mind of a woman is described as uncontrollable (8.33.7), and some women are described as unfaithful (6.75.4). A ritual text claims that there is no friendship with a woman who has the heart of a hyena, whereas the same text lumps a woman with the lowest caste, a dog, and a crow (animals that symbolize uncleanliness), and with elements that signify untruth, sin, and darkness.4 With the advent of the dharma texts around the first century B.C.E., such as...

Share