Blackness in the White Nation: A History of Afro-Uruguay

Notes

notes Abbreviations ACSUN Asociación Cultural y Social Uruguay Negro, Montevideo BN-ME Sala de Materiales Especiales, Biblioteca Nacional, Montevideo BN-SU Sala Uruguay, Biblioteca Nacional, Montevideo CIAPEN Círculo de Intelectuales, Artistas, Periodistas y Escritores Negros, Montevideo DAECPU Directores Asociados Espectáculos Carnavalescos del Uruguay, Montevideo FNB Frente Negra Brasileira, São Paulo IBGE Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística, Brasília IMM Intendencia Municipal de Montevideo INE Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Montevideo JVMP Jacinto Ventura de Molina Papers, Sala de Materiales Especiales, Biblioteca Nacional, Montevideo MAHM Museo y Archivo Histórico Municipal, Montevideo PAN Partido Autóctono Negro, Montevideo PIC Partido Independiente de Color, Havana PIDF Partido Independiente Democrático Femenino, Montevideo SERPAJ Servicio Paz y Justicia, Montevideo SODRE Servicio Oficial de Difusión Radio Televisión y Espectáculos, Montevideo Introduction 1. The country’s two principal political parties, the Blancos and the Colorados , could not agree on which date to celebrate. The Blancos favored 1825 (when Blanco leader Juan Antonio Lavalleja had led the independence movement against Brazil) and the Colorados 1830 (because of Colorado leader Fructuoso Rivera’s role in overseeing the writing of the constitution of that year). The parties eventually negotiated a compromise to celebrate both dates. To this day Uruguay has two foundational holidays: 25 August (the declaration of independence in 1825) and 18 July (the 178 notes to pages 2–6 adoption of the Constitution of 1830). Caetano, Los uruguayos del Centenario , 11–14. 2. On Batlle’s reforms, see Vanger, José Batlle y Ordóñez; Vanger, The Model Country; Frega, ‘‘La formulación de un modelo’’; and Ehrick, Shield of the Weak. For statistical indicators, see Bulmer-Thomas, Economic History, 85, 110, 147; and Thorp, Progress, Poverty, 354. In some ways the most gratifying indicator of all was the tiny country’s gold medals in soccer at the Olympics of 1924 and 1928, its selection to host the first World Cup in 1930, and its victory (over Argentina) at that event in the newly constructed Centennial Stadium. Galeano, El fútbol, 50–53, 59–60, 62–64. 3. El libro del Centenario, 6. 4. Ibid., 6, 43. 5. Araújo, Tierra uruguaya, 48–50; Leone, ‘‘Manuales escolares,’’ 175; Araújo Villagrán, Estoy orgulloso, 78, 80. The U.S. visitor W. J. Holland found that ‘‘the Uruguayans pride themselves upon the fact that racial questions are not likely to trouble their republic in the future. ‘Ours,’ they say, ‘is a white man’s country.’ ’’ Holland, To the River Plate, 94. See also Herrera, El Uruguay internacional, 28; and Feldwick and Delaney, Twentieth Century Impressions, 78, 518. 6. On those texts, see Leone, ‘‘Manuales escolares.’’ 7. Abadie Soriano and Zarrilli, Democracia, 128–30. 8. Ibid., 15. 9. Ibid., 23, 91–92, 110–11, 182. 10. Ibid., 180. 11. On the Terra period, see Jacob, El Uruguay de Terra; and Porrini, Derechos humanos. 12. The only black Latin American periodicals more durable than Nuestra Raza were A Alvorada (1907–63?), published in the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul, and the English-language Panama Tribune (1928–73). Loner, Constru ção de classe, 459; Westerman, Los inmigrantes antillanos, 124–28. 13. In addition to those titles listed in the bibliography, all of which are available in the Biblioteca Nacional, two additional titles that I did not have time to read were Democracia (Rocha, 1942–46) and Orientación (Melo, 1941–45). Additional titles to which I found references but was unable to locate include CIAPEN (Montevideo, 1951), La Crónica (Montevideo, 1870), El Erial (Montevideo, 1942), PAN (Montevideo, 1937–38), El Peligro (Rivera, 1934), El Porvenir (Montevideo, 1877), Renovación (Montevideo, 1939–40); El Sol (Montevideo, 1870s); and El Tribuno (Montevideo, 1870s or 1880s). 14. On the Afro-Brazilian and Afro-Cuban presses, see Ferrara, A imprensa negra paulista, 237–77; Mello, ‘‘Para o recreio’’; and de la Fuente, A Nation for All, 415. Population comparisons are based on the year 2000; see Andrews, AfroLatin America, 156. On the Afro-Uruguayan press, see Rodríguez, Mbundo malungo, 57–154; and Lewis, Afro-Uruguayan Literature, 27–46. 15. On the legal equivalence of blacks and mulattoes, see Petit Muñoz et al., La condición jurídica, 61–69; quotation from 61. On the legal restrictions that weighed on both groups, see ibid., 334–65, 385–434. notes to pages 8–15 179 16. Andrews, The Afro...