Selling the Congo: A History of European Pro-Empire Propaganda and the Making of Belgian Imperialism

Notes

Introduction 1. Explanatory plaque in park at the Colonial Monument, author’s visit, September 2002. 2. Cercle Royal des Anciens Officiers des Campagnes d’Afrique: Bulletin Trimestriel, no. 3 (September 2000): 7. I discuss this event and local colonial interest groups in Stanard, “Imperialists without an Empire.” 3. Ville de Namur, “Cérémonie nationale d’hommage au drapeau de Tabora.” 4. Régie des bâtiments, “Place du Trône.” 5. Gilbert and Large, End of the European Era, 119. 6. Gordon Wright, Ordeal of Total War, 66–72; and Judt, Postwar, 310–11. 7. Jowett and O’Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion, 4. 8. Connelly and Welch, War and the Media; and Taylor, Munitions of the Mind. 9. Row, “Mobilizing the Nation.” 10. On colonial literature, see Renders, “In Black and White”; Halen, Petit Belge avait vu grand; Halen and Riesz, Images de l’Afrique et du Congo; and Quaghebeur and Van Balberghe, Papier blanc, encre noire. 11. Much work has been done on Hergé, Tintin, and the Congo. See Hunt, “Tintin and the Interruptions of Congolese Comics.” 12. On photography, see Geary, In and Out of Focus. 13. Davis, “Maps on Postage Stamps as Propaganda”; Schwarzenbach, Portraits of the Nation; de Cock, Congo Belge et ses marques postales; Vancraenbroeck , Médailles de la presence belge en Afrique centrale; and Banque nationale de Belgique, Franc belge, 296. Notes 272 Notes to pages 5–10 14. Aldrich, “Putting the Colonies on the Map”; and Edouard Vincke, “Discours sur le noir,” 91. 15. Au service des broussards (Namur, 1937) and Les Grands Ordres missionnaires . Les spécialistes du continent noir (Paris-Namur, 1939), located in Pirotte, “Armes d’une mobilisation,” 84. 16. Blanchard and Lemaire, Culture coloniale, 5–39. 17. A Fleming is someone from Flanders, the northern, Dutch-speaking part of Belgium; a Walloon is someone from Wallonia, the southern, Frenchspeaking part of the kingdom. 18. Stengers, “Statesman as Imperialist,” 48–51. 19. Ewans, “Belgium and the Colonial Experience.” 20. Young, Politics in the Congo, 148. 21. Peemans, “Imperial Hangovers,” 275. 22. Vellut, “Hégémonies en Construction.” 23. Anstey, King Leopold’s Legacy, 44. 24. Slade, King Leopold’s Congo, 194. 25. Vanthemsche, “Historiography of Belgian Colonialism in the Congo.” 26. Castryck, “Whose History Is History?” 27. Bate, Congo; and Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost. Kevin C. Dunn’s Imagining the Congo omits the Belgian state period entirely. 28. Viaene, “King Leopold’s Imperialism.” 29. He makes clear they are not the objects of his study. Vanthemsche, Belgique et le Congo, 26, passim. 30. See, for example, Gewald, “More than Red Rubber and Figures Alone.” 31. Wrong, “Belgium Confronts Its Heart of Darkness”; cf. Riding, “Belgium Confronts Its Heart of Darkness.” 32. Edgerton, Troubled Heart of Africa, xii–xiii. 33. Bell, “Leopold’s Ghost,” 16. 34. The “reprise” was Belgium’s takeover of the colony from Leopold II on 15 November 1908. 35. Harms, “End of Red Rubber.” 36. Aldrich, Greater France, 192–95; and Gide, Voyage au Congo suivi de Le retour du Chad. 37. Gründer, Geschichte der deutsche Kolonien, 121. 273 Notes to pages 10–15 38. Ferguson, Empire, 39–40. 39. Thomas, Moore, and Butler, Crises of Empire, 29. 40. David Anderson, Histories of the Hanged; and Elkins, Imperial Reckoning. 41. Osborn, “Belgium Exhumes Its Colonial Demons.” 42. Vanthemsche, “Historiography of Belgian Colonialism in the Congo.” See also Stengers, “Belgian Historiography since 1945.” 43. Castryck, “Whose History Is History?” 80–82. 44. Stengers, Combien le Congo a-t-il coûté à la Belgique; Stengers, Belgique et Congo; and Vellut, Loriaux, and Morimont, Bibliographie historique du Zaïre, 43–63. 45. De Witte, Assassination of Lumumba. 46. For example, Slade, King Leopold’s Congo; Anstey, King Leopold’s Legacy; and Emerson, Leopold II of the Belgians. 47. Vints, Kongo, made in Belgium; Jacquemin and De Moor, “Notre Congo /Onze Kongo”; and Wynants, Des ducs de Brabant aux villages congolais. 48. Viaene, Van Reybrouck, and Ceuppens, Congo in België. 49. Schneider, Empire for the Masses; MacKenzie, Propaganda and Empire ; August, Selling of the Empire; and MacKenzie, Imperialism and Popular Culture. 50. Huxley, “Notes on Propaganda,” 36–39. 51. Emerson, Léopold II, passim. 52. Gann and Duignan, Rulers of Belgian Africa, 59. 53. Vellut, “European Medicine in the Congo Free State (1885–1908),” 77. 54. See, for example, Union minière du Haut-Katanga, Union minière du Haut-Katanga 1906–1956, 82–237...