Index
i n d e x alternate control trial. See controlled clinical trial American Association of Immunologists, 31 American Medical Association, 76, 78, 79, 132, 138, 202n76; consolidation of power by, 51– 52; and Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry resistance to sulfapyridine release, 95, 97, 102 Amsterdamska, Olga, 27 Anders, James, 13 Anderson, Gaylord, 61 antibiotics, 114, 139–41, 236n28 antibody solution. See Huntoon’s antibody solution antipneumococcal antiserum, non-typespeci fic: initial demonstration of, 11; polyvalent (see polyvalent serum); pre-type specific, 13, 155n6 antipneumococcal antiserum, type-specific: application of, 15; as basis for pneumonia’s transformation into public health concern, 51–52, 56, 58; concentration of, 18; cost as prohibitive factor in application of, 56, 72– 73, 77; development of, 4, 14; early spread of, 15; economic justification for, 16, 73–74, 197n42, 198n44; eªcacy of established, 20– 21; as epitome of applied immunology, 26– 30, 165n28; establishment as a “specific,” 24, 163n12; expansion of range, 54, 69; extent of usage, 55, 73, 159n46, 196nn33&37; final call for usage, 225n147; history of reconstructed, 55–56, 89, 136, 205n2; initial demonstration of, 4, 15; Lederle sales of, 206n5; and Massachusetts Pneumonia Study and Service, 60; need for use of early in disease, 18, 185n40; retrenchment in usage of, 108–14; as revolutionary , 69; side e¤ects of, 17, 20, 62; as standard of care, 6, 68–71, 91, 206n2; as superior to sulfa drugs, 102; type I as standard, 53, 68–69; type II, 181n1, 188n76; as used during World War I, 16–17; utility of first debated , 17–18; variability in usage of, 100– 102. See also combination therapy; combination serum and sulfapyridine therapy appendicitis, pneumonia considered as emergent as, 71, 83, 197n43 Armstrong, Donald, 55, 63, 64, 79, 202n75 Arrowsmith, 26, 31, 164n22, 165n23 atypical pneumonia. See under pneumonia Auenbrügger, Leopold, 9 Austrian, Robert, 143–45 autolyzed pneumococcal antigen, 17 Avery, Oswald, 14, 29, 184n34; as applied scientist , 27; concentration of antiserum by, 160n55 bacteriophage therapy, 26 Barry, John M., 158n32 Behring, Emil von, 10 Beeson, Paul, 105 Bell, William, 89 Bellevue Hospital, 20, 37, 42, 47, 49, 109, 114, 119–22 passim, 174n23 Bigelow, George H., 58–59, 185n47 Page numbers in italics refer to figures and tables. Blake, Francis, 30, 50, 57, 212n44, 217n84; as “apostle” of Cole, 15, 25; characterization of antibody-antigen interaction by, 30; on combination therapy, 105, 109; on evaluations of serum during World War I, 17 Blankenhorn, Marion, 73, 192n2, 196n37, 209n20, 230n58 Bortz, Edward, 133, 192n1 Boston City Hospital, 1, 120, 160n53, 205n2 Brandt, Allan, 76 Breiman, Robert, 145 Brooks, Harlow, 47, 49, 179n79 Brown, John, 105 Bull, Carroll, 29, 168n57 Bullowa, Jesse, 4, 69, 73, 96, 121, 192n3, 220n110; assent of to sulfapyridine’s release, 98, 99; combination therapy supported by, 104, 110, 113; controlled clinical trial ethos advocated by, 41–42, 118; death of, 223n135; deprecation of physiology-based rationalism by, 194n20; earliest serum trials conducted by, 20; generalizability of monotherapysupporting studies attacked by, 124–27; generalship of physician advanced by, 30, 126; Lederle and, 129; serotherapy championed over sulfapyridine by, 96–98, 100; on sulfanilamide, 93; textbook on pneumonia of, 176n40; titration of serum to antigen level by, 30 Cabot, Hugh, 101, 214n61 California, 81 Camac, Charles, 48 Cecil, Russell, 4, 50, 69, 79, 134, 138; as clinician and immunologist, 31; as New York Pneumonia Control Program chairman, 63; pneumococcal vaccine study by, 142; testing of serum by, 20, 40; ultimate dismissal of serotherapy by, 110 Centers for Disease Control, 141, 145 Chapin, Charles, 204nn93&94 chemotherapy, 26. See also sulfadiazine; sulfanilamide ; sulfapyridine; sulfathiazole; sulfonamides Chickering, Henry, 17, 157n18 Churchill, Winston, 235n22 Clough, Paul, 29, 167n40 Cole, Rufus: atypical pneumonia considered by, 223n137; chemotherapy supported by, 223n135; concerns of regarding serum’s testing during World War I, 18, 160n49; dilution of serotherapy feared by, 80; Hospital of the Rockefeller Institute’s mission described by, 14; immunology as a field considered by, 168n57; initial reluctance of to send out serum to others, 157n18; interactions of with commercial serum producers, 33–34; 170nn67,69,72&76; nonspecific immunity dismissed by, 28–29, 166n38; pneumococcal vaccination regarded by, 142; pneumococcus reformulated by, 22, 24–25, 163n14; pneumonia’s transformation into public health concern supported by, 75, 185n40; resistance of to controlled clinical trials, 37–38, 173n11; side e¤ects of serotherapy dismissed by, 159n43; soluble specific substance considered by, 30; “specifics” advocated by, 23–24 collaborative studies, 20–21, 40–42 Collins, Leon, 55...
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