Anti-Americanisms in World Politics

Conclusion: Anti-Americanisms and the Polyvalence of America

Conclusion: Anti-Americanisms and the Polyvalence of America P E T E R J . K A T Z E N S T E I N a n d R O B E R T O . K E O H A N E 306 When we think about the varieties of anti-Americanism, two puzzles are readily apparent. First, why does such a rich variety of anti-American views persist? Second, why do persistent and adaptable anti-American views have so little direct impact on policy and political practice? Anti-Americanism reflects opinion and distrust, and sometimes bias. Often it generates expressive activity: demonstrating, marching, waving banners, even symbolically smashing the windows of a McDonald’s restaurant in France. But it is not a political force that frequently overturns governments, leads American multinational firms to disguise their origins, or propels the U.S. government to make major policy changes. We suggest a single answer to both puzzles. In a phrase, the symbolism generated by America is so polyvalent that it continually creates a diversity of material on which to construct anti-Americanism. The polyvalence of America embodies a rich variety of values: secular science and religious fundamentalism, moralism and sexual permissiveness , rigorous science and a rich popular culture. The values associated with America resonate differently with the various cognitive schemas held by individuals and reinforced by groups—schemas that vary greatly cross-nationally. Furthermore, these schemas are internally complex and may contain elements that are in tension or contradiction with one another. When polyvalent American symbols connect with varied, shifting, and complex cognitive schemas, the resulting reactions refract like a prism in sunlight. Many colors appear in the prism, just as America elicits many different reactions around the world. Often, different components of what is refracted will simultaneously attract and repel. Our emphasis on the polyvalence of American society is quite different from three popular explanations for anti-Americanism, all of which we took seriously in our inquiry: power imbalances, a backlash against globalization, and conflicting Conclusion 307 identities. Although all three arguments seem to resonate with expressions of antiAmericanism in some parts of the world at some times, they are insufficient to understand anti-Americanism in other places and at other times. This book amply documents that anti-American views are simply too heterogeneous to be explained by one or a few broad factors. We begin this chapter with these popular explanations , then turn to our own interpretation, centered on polyvalence. Three Perspectives on Anti-Americanism The study of anti-Americanism is a specific application of the analysis of different types of beliefs in world politics.1 One could imagine a world in which only material resources count. Stalin once famously asked, “How many divisions has the pope?” In such an imaginary world, national interests would be assessed by elites who calculate only on the basis of material interests. Influence would be exerted only through the use or threat of force and material resources. Since states and the elites who control them use their material resources to achieve their preferred outcomes, positive or negative attitudes toward or beliefs about the United States would have no impact either on policies or on outcomes. But the Catholic Church is still around, while Soviet Communism can be found only in the dustbin of history. The premise of Stalin’s rhetorical question was plainly wrong: attitudes and beliefs matter greatly in world politics. In our analysis of anti-Americanism we assume that different analytical traditions can be complementary and compatible.2 Rationalism focuses our attention on how interests can affect attitudes and beliefs and their strategic use in politics. It emphasizes that anti-American schemas often persist because they serve the political interests of elites as well as the psychological needs of mass publics. Constructivism highlights the importance of identities and the social and subjective processes by which they are created. Finally, both rationalism and constructivism contribute much to our understanding of norms. Anti-American attitudes and beliefs, expressing schemas, identities, and norms, are always contested or at least contestable. They are objects of political struggle. Our analysis of anti-Americanism thus is fundamentally about politics. Political observers typically frame their understanding of anti-Americanism in three explanatory sketches that focus on power imbalances, a backlash against globalization , or conflicting identities. Although these sketches cannot be applied easily to specific instances of anti-Americanism, they often seem to be useful starting points as one thinks about the...