Forests of Belonging: Identities, Ethnicities, and Stereotypes in the Congo River Basin

Notes

261 Notes indicate where ethnographic data are recorded, including field notebooks and field cassettes. These data were collected in the Lobéké forest region of southeastern Cameroon between 1995 and 2000. The African Collection at Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University, has kindly agreed to archive these primary sources permanently, so that scholars may consult them in their research. introduction Discussion with Maga about relations between Bangando and Baka, recorded in Field Notebook #3, pp. 142–51. Lopondji, 5 October 1998. 1 See, for example, Vallois 1950; Frasez 1952; Althabe 1965; Vallois and Marquer 1976; Demesse 1980; Bahuchet 1992; Sato 1992, 1998; Dounias 1993a; Joiris Notes 262 notes to introduction and chapter one 1993a, 1993b, 1996, 1997, 1998; Dongmo and Loung 1993; Boursier 1994, 1996; Leonard 1997; Leclerc 1998, 2000; Abéga 1998; Tsuru 1998; Brisson 1999; Leonhardt 1999; Hewlett 2000; Kimura 2003. 2 My preliminary research resources in Epulu included Schebesta 1940, 1952; P. Putnam 1948; A. Putnam and Keller 1954; Turnbull 1961, 1965; J. Hart 1979; T. Hart and J. Hart 1978, 1986; Bailey and Peacock 1988; Bailey and Aunger 1989; Headland and Bailey 1991; Grinker 1990. 3 Several significant studies do highlight the role of farming and “swidden agriculture ” in maintaining biodiverse ecosystems. See, in particular, Fairhead and Leach 1996, and Conklin 1961. 4 Anthropologists who work in the forests of central Africa are generally quite certain that they can readily distinguish a “pygmy” individual from a “nonpygmy ” (Cavalli-Sforza 1986). Perhaps my powers of observation are limited; however, discussions with Catholic missionaries who have worked with Baka and Bangando (as well as Bakwélé and Mbomam) for many years also admit that they are not always able to distinguish “pygmies” from “non-pygmies” based on appearance. For example, a Baka resident of Dioula measures 5 feet 8 inches tall. 5 In total, my field research among the Bangando, Baka, Bakwélé, and Mbomam communities of southeastern Cameroon covered twenty-six months, from 1995 to 2000. In citing the many individuals who contributed to my research, I have maintained some informants’ names if they expressed this preference. For other informants, particularly those who spoke to me about delicate matters or preferred anonymity, I have provided pseudonyms. chapter one: paradigms 1 MINFOF, the Ministère des Forêts et de la Faune, is now responsible for managing forest resources in Cameroon. This domain was formerly the responsibility of MINEF, the Ministère des Eaux et Forêts, which no longer exists. 2 Http://ld.panda.org/jengi_news.html. Accessed 15 July, 2005. 3 Discussion with Bertin Tchikangwa, recorded in Field Notebook #5, pp. 14–15. Yaoundé, 26 January 1999. 4 This inversion of the anticipated pattern of technology exchange, in which “hunter-gatherers” could be expected to teach “farmers” how to hunt, has also been noted in other forest communities, notably among the Mbuti and Aka. (Turnbull 1983; Bahuchet and Guillaume 1982; Bahuchet 1993a). Further examination of histories of technology transfer is warranted. 5 Among many examples, see “Cultural Survival” at http://www.culturalsurival. org. Accessed 10 August 2005. notes to chapter two 263 chapter two: belonging 1 Rupp: “Ɛ́nɛ́ Ɓàngàndò, ɛ́nɛ́ bò né ɔ̀ɔ̀?” Wanguwangu: “Yé Ɓàngàndò bò yé Ɓàngàndò. Ɓàngàndò bò nú ɔ̀ɔ̀, kà ɔ̀ɔ̀ bò Ɓángàndò. Bò má hànyàwé nà!” Conversation recorded in Field Notebook #5, pp. 23–25. Dioula-Beligela, 14 February 1999. 2 Discussion of Bangando history with Kouamanda Kallo and Wanguwangu, recorded in Field Notebook #3 pp. 69–72, 114–16. Dioula, 7 and 18 July 1997. 3 Ndjámbé or Ndjámbé mòkákè is the Bangando creator deity, and is often portrayed in stories as the ancestor of the entire community. Ndjámbé is also often portrayed as a buffoon, a fallible father figure whose mistakes often lead to unexpected but important lessons for his family, and ultimately for all Bangando descendants. Ndjámbé, who is considered to be an all-powerful spirit, nonetheless combines qualities of both godliness and humanity. Catholic missionaries in the region have translated the Judeo-Christian concept of “God” into Bangando as Ndjámbé. 4 Today a community identified by the ethnonym “Ngombé” lives in the forest of the Republic of Congo, on the western side of the Sangha River. I am not certain if this community constitutes the other “half” of the original Ngombé community prior to the schism; however, Bangando in southeastern Cameroon claim that they can...