Who Should be Sacrificed? Human Sacrifice and Status in Plutarch: Themistocles 13, Pelopidas 21–22, Philopoemen 21

The existence of human sacrifice in ancient Greece remains open to debate (Henrichs 1981, Hughes 1991, Bonnechere 1994, Georgoudi 1999, and Bremmer 2007a). Although archaeology might appear to be the best tool to obtain a definitive answer,² information can also be extracted from the many literary testimonies available, including some passages in Plutarch. By analysing three such passages, I focus on the subject of sacrifice and build on Jan Bremmer's seminal article: "Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece" (1983). I shall briefly address the historicity of the stories narrated by Plutarch and will examine two interesting questions: how did the ancient Greeks imagine human sacrifice and what kind of victim was considered suitable?

At least two perspectives are necessary for a rigorous analysis of these texts: the author's (Plutarch's) own opinion of human sacrifice and the opinions he ascribes to the protagonists of the Lives. Then there is the implicit but equally interesting information that can be extracted from the passages in which he addresses this topic.³

I

I start with Plutarch's own opinion of human sacrifice offered to the gods. At the end of On Superstition, he writes (13.171.B–D):

Would it not then have been better for those Gauls and Scythians to have had absolutely no conception, no vision, no tradition, regarding the gods, than to believe in the existence of gods who take delight in the blood of human sacrifice and hold this to be the most perfect offering and holy rite (τελεωτάτην θυσίαν καὶ ἱερουργίαν)? … Yet, if Typhons or Giants were ruling over us after they had expelled the gods, with what sort of sacrifices would they be pleased, or what other holy rites would they require? Amestris, the wife of Xerxes, caused twelve human beings to be buried alive as an offering in her behalf to propitiate Hades, of whom Plato says that it is because he is humane and wise and rich, and controls the souls of the dead by persuasion and reason, that he has come to be called by this name. Xenophanes, the natural philosopher, seeing the Egyptians beating their breasts and wailing at their festivals, gave them a very proper suggestion: "If these beings are gods," said he, "do not bewail them; and if they are men, do not offer sacrifices to them."

(trans. Babbit 1928)

Plutarch ascribes the practice of human sacrifice not only to Gauls, Scythians, and Persians, but also to some hypothetical Greeks: Greeks who would have been ruled by Typhons and Giants. However, this shift to mythology (to a world where monsters such as Typhon were victorious in their battles with the gods) and in space (outside Greece) is in contrast with all the other episodes he relates that are located in the Greece of history. The argument Plutarch uses to oppose this brutal sacrificial practice is the humanity (so to speak) of the Greek gods: they are not monsters and would not have accepted this kind of offering.

Bearing in mind that he is not narrating a specific episode whose protagonists have different points of view (as in the passages discussed below), but rather is addressing the general question of deisidaimonia ("superstition") and stating his position on the matter, it is reasonable to assume that this is Plutarch's own opinion of human sacrifice.

II

According to Plutarch, Themistocles sacrificed three Persian captives to Dionysos Omestes ("Eater of Raw Meat") before the battle of Salamis, following the advice of a seer and yielding to pressure from his soldiers. These captives had been taken on the island of Psytalea, which faces Salamis. This disturbing episode is problematic not only due to its uncertain authenticity, but also because of the unusual dedication to Dionysos Omestes.

The main argument against the historicity of this episode is that, according to other accounts, the island of Psytalea was attacked after the battle of Salamis and all the Persians in that second skirmish were killed and none were captured.⁴ As for the other problem, namely the dedication to Dionysos...