Religious-Zionism and Gender: 70 Years of Redefining the Identity of Women in the Military, Religious, and Public Spheres

On 13 May 1948, the day before the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel and at the height of the War of Independence, 39 young Religious-Zionist women from the Gush Etzion kibbutzim, mostly single, but also some married women and mothers, serving as medics, coordinators, and guards were captured by the Jordanians.¹

Despite the tragedy, this event may be perceived as epitomizing the new identity the Religious-Zionist women gained during the British Mandate; an identity which was expressed in their participation in the security, political, and organizational aspects of the traditionally "male" public space. Originally stemming from a desire to share in the national struggle with the men, this involvement became the platform for the development of new gender relations within the Religious-Zionist sector.² "We, the religious pioneer movement, have revolutionized the status of the woman within traditional religious society, taking pride in the fact that we have not impinged upon classical Jewish ethics in the process," asserted Moshe Una, a Hapoel Hamizrahi MK, in a Knesset debate in the wake of which female conscription became mandatory in 1949.³

The creation of the State, however, redirected Religious-Zionist history yet again. While many aspects of gender relations reverted to their previous status, in the 1980s the place and position of the religious woman and revolutionary and feminist initiatives became the subject of increasing discussion. This debate still revolves around three major issues: military service, Torah-study and women's participation in religious activities, and self-organization by religious women on behalf of women and women's rights. The article addresses these three areas and the developments that have occurred within them over the 70 years since the establishment of the State.

ON THE EVE OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE STATE: REVOLUTIONARY GENDER INITIATIVES ON A NATIONAL PLATFORM

The distinctive female identity that developed within the Religious-Zionist sector in Mandate Palestine was formed against the backdrop of the heterogeneous social nature of the Yishuv. While constituting an integral part of the new society, Religious-Zionists sought to preserve a traditional lifestyle. The constant tension they experienced between the new and the old directly affected the image of women that developed within it, many looking for ways to maintain the traditional patriarchalism predicated on gender division while also espousing a new set of gender relations for the nascent Jewish sovereign State.

Calling for the mobilization of all available resources, the national struggle for the establishment of the State created a window of opportunity for projects that, retrospectively, may be termed feminist. Religious women formed female organizations as a way of contributing to the Religious-Zionist enterprise and the advancement of women alike. Institutions were created to assist the integration of immigrants and educate young religious girls, many women also entering professional training courses. Running on independent religious lists, religious female representatives were appointed to elected assemblies, participated in the settlement enterprise, and established kibbutzim, their daughters studying Talmud from a young age together with their brothers in a clean break from tradition. Religious-Zionist women joined various branches of the defense forces, acting in diverse capacities therein, 20 falling in the War of Independence. While many acted out of a sense of nationalist identification rather than a desire for gender equality, they heavily impacted the self-image of religious women and recognition of their abilities.

In general, Religious-Zionist women in Mandate Palestine conceived their personal, religious, and national purpose as motherhood. Some, however, also sought to change the image of society and the place of women therein, calling for gender equality while retaining the spirit of Judaism. Promoting equal education for both sexes, they believed that women could move beyond the confines of the home and help establish the national homeland. This being in part a response to the fledgling national revival, it may be perceived as a "conditional feminism" fueled by specific circumstances.⁴ It was also marked by a contradictory desire to establish and assume new feminine...