Two lenses have typically defined international science cooperation: advancing knowledge and ensuring scientific capability, or advancing broader national interests. It is the latter perspective, advancing both direct and indirect national interests, that the evolving concept of science diplomacy primarily encompasses. This is also reflected in the creation by a growing number of foreign ministries of formal links to the science system by appointing science advisors or embedding science and technology (S&T) units within ministries. While there is no sharp distinction between the two spheres, they are often administered through different agencies and different funding streams, which can cause potential conflicts between—and confusion within—agencies. Indeed, better coordination could resolve such issues, while enhancing the value generated by such endeavors.

The concept of science diplomacy was given contemporary emphasis and currency by a meeting held in 2009 at Wilton House, United Kingdom, sponsored by the Royal Society,(London) and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), publisher of Science & Diplomacy. 1 The most influential outcome of that meeting was the development of a taxonomy for science diplomacy that has come to be widely used: