At first glance—and independently of gender role behavioral components—men's or women's clothing appears to signal the gender to which the wearer feels he or she belongs. Cross-dressing (transvestism) in the framework of a gender role change has been reported from a large number of Native American cultures (see Map 2). Most of the sources contain explicit information about whether male" berdaches" put on women's clothes. In some cases, the comments are less clear; for example, in early lists of the Anthropological Records, Gifford (1940: 66) included as the only entries" Berdaches admitted,"" Males as females," and" Females as males." The exact meaning of" Males as females" is left to the speculation of the reader. Driver's compilation (1937) poses similarproblems. However, because the term" berdache" in the American scholarly literature is usually understood to refer to males in women's clothing, such unclear or ambiguous examples have—with reservations—been included in Map 2, but they are designated as" cross-dressing assumed." Voegelin (1942: 134), Essene (1942: 31), and Steward (1941: 312) expanded their lists to include the topical entry" Wear women's clothes." Steward's examples make it clear that, even in view of a heading such as" berdache" or" transvestite," cross-dressing can be assumed only with reservations. For several subgroups of the Nevada Shoshoni, the compilation indicates that" Male berdaches" do" woman's work" but do not wear women's clothing (Steward 1941: 312). Other examples (also included in Map 2, with reservations) include comments such as" Berdaches (men living as women)... had the natural desire to become women.... They were married to men.... The