Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan (review)

In the spring of 334 BC, Alexander the Great launched his invasion of the Persian Empire and in the next three years defeated Persian forces in three major battles, thus taking possession of territories of the ruling Achaemenid dynasty. Opposition to the Greeks gathered in Bactria and Sogdiana, roughly modern Afghanistan, where Alexander found it difficult to cope with insurgents. The ancient Greeks, like Americans, were better at conventional than guerrilla warfare.

Holt's method in this work, unlike that found in his three other books on the Greeks in Bactria, takes the reader back and forth between ancient Bactria and modern Afghanistan as he compares Alexander's occupation of Bactria with British, Russian, and American intervention in the region. Alexander's aim, similar to that of his modern counterparts, was to eliminate warlords who were sponsoring "terrorists" and undermining his policies. We are not surprised to learn that severe weather, rugged topography, fierce local loyalties, and a generally xenophobic population made Alexander's task difficult. Alexander was astonished that his excellent army with high tech weapons such as catapults did not quickly pacify the region.

Holt not only provides an excellent analysis of Alexander's military response to this new type of warfare but assesses the psychological impact of contending against fierce guerrillas. In Bactria the great conqueror began to exhibit signs of instability, executing some of his closest supporters while his army began to commit atrocities. Holt suggests that the Greeks were traumatized by their Bactrian experience.

Holt maintains that a thorough appraisal of the Greek experience in Bactria may provide lessons for the future, but this aim may be too ambitious. Alexander's intervention into Bactria began with bloodshed, then he turned to a more conciliatory policy marked by his marriage to Roxane, the daughter of a local warlord. Ultimately, he had to crack the whip again, killing over 120,000 natives and then posting half his infantry and most of his cavalry in Bactria. Apart from brute force it is not clear whether any of Alexander's tactics in Bactria were effective. American decision makers studying the Greek model do not have the option of destroying a large section of the population, nor is it very likely that they could gain influence in the region by forging marriage ties with Afghan warlords. What we might learn from Alexander's campaign is that a successful intervention in the region requires immense time and resources, and that American soldiers will be very vulnerable to post traumatic stress syndrome.

When Alexander died, over 20,000 Greek soldiers attempted to leave Bactria. Some were slaughtered and others forced to stay. The Greeks remained in Bactria for the next two centuries. The ancient literary sources recording their history in Bactria are few but the numismatic and archeological evidence is abundant. Unfortunately, this data was not thoroughly studied before the Taliban looted and destroyed much of it. The coinage reveals the names of many Greek "kings." Holt assumes that some of these men, who apparently held power for short periods, were warlords, and that the Greeks did not always succeed in unifying the region under a strong ruler.

Alexander's hardened veterans were shocked to see natives allowing dogs to devour their dead. Plutarch, a late Greek writer, maintained that the Greeks brought civilization to the area and some modern historians accept that conclusion, noting Greek cities with theaters and art work. Perhaps the Greeks welcomed natives into their poleis and attempted to impose their values on them. But the limited evidence only permits an educated guess at whether the Greeks abolished the "devourer dogs" and other such practices. The multiculturalists would argue that the Greeks had no right to interfere with such traditions. Although there are many lacunae in the sources, Holt has written an excellent narrative history that will serve both the scholar and the average reader.