The Freud/Weber Connection: The Case of Islamic Iran

Introduction

In recent years there has been renewed interest in transitions to democracy. This can be traced to the growth in the number of democracies worldwide. Many scholars have sought to create new theories in order to understand or explain this phenomenon. Nonetheless, problems remain. Many of the problems associated with the current literature on transitions relate to the inability of scholars to link micro and macro processes and to uncover consistent patterns of change. This paper will attempt to rectify this situation by returning to earlier approaches that seem to have been lost in the current discussions of transitions. I am referring here to the Freud/Weber connection. Both Freud and Weber deal with transitions, but they do so in fundamentally different ways. Freud employs a micro-psychological approach, whereas Weber employs a macro-sociological one. A number of authors (Brown; Hummel; Lasswell & Lerner; and McIntosh) have suggested that the two approaches have much in common and that Freud's micro-theory may bridge the gap left in many of Weber's macro-concepts. In this paper, the Weber/Freud approach will be applied to the case of Islamic Iran.

Authority for Weber

In Economy and Society, Weber argues that there are three pure types of legitimate domination: traditional, charismatic, and bureaucratic. Traditional forms of rule are those led by a paternal authority with a filial following. This type relies on such values as personal loyalty to the leader and unquestioning obedience. The leader is selected by virtue of his status, and is often regarded as infallible. Traditional paternal authority tends to be elitist and opposed to merit and/or personal achievement. It finds its origins in the patriarchal household upon which it is modeled. Many authoritarian forms of rule that have existed in human history are traditional in character (monarchies, empires, khanates, etc.).

The second type, the charismatic form of rule, opposes tradition and is based upon the personal magnetism of the leader. Individuals are loyal to the leader because he/she possesses some "exemplary qualities" (Weber 241). It is thus the duty of those subject to this authority to "recognize its genuineness and act accordingly" (Weber 242). Charisma is therefore the great revolutionary force that has the ability to alter longstanding traditions. Both authoritarianism and democracy can be outgrowths of charisma. If a charismatic leader acts in an authoritarian fashion, this can lead to the establishment of a new form of paternalistic traditionalism. If the leader is more democratic, then this can lead to the establishment of legal rules of succession, rationality in the political sphere, and bureaucratic forms of rule.

The third type, bureaucratic authority, is one based on systematized, legal rules of play. Under this type of rule, achievement is valued. The development of bureaucracy thus "greatly favors the leveling of status" (Weber 226). Equality under the law allows for greater social mobility and movement between classes, and merit plays a greater role in determining who will lead the community. Modern liberal democracy incorporates elements of bureaucratic authority, because democracy prevents the development of a closed-status group and minimizes the authority of officialdom in the interest of the public sphere. "The decisive aspect here . . . is the leveling of the governed in the face of the governing and bureaucratically articulated group" (Weber 985).

Authority for Freud

In his discussion of civilization, Freud notes at least three types of authority relationships: anarchical, meritorious, and familial. These correspond to his three competing mechanisms of the mind (id, ego, super-ego). Each mechanism has its own preferences, and this fact often brings them into conflict with each other.

The id, which is the repository of instinctual/physiological drives (i.e., sexuality, aggression, hunger), is the most irrational and thus the most attracted to anarchy. Being the repository of instinctual drives, it resents authority in all of its forms, because authority (i.e., civilization) places...