Satire in Modern Afghanistan

Satire is one of the youngest forms in modern Afghanistani literature and art. Its different types and forms have been emerging in the backdrop of sociopolitical development since the early twentieth century, although as a literary and artistic form it only started systematically from the mid-1960s. So, bearing in mind its short history and the sociopolitical and cultural difficulties during the past forty years including the failure of the constitutional democracy (1965–73), two coups (1973 and 1978), the invasion of Afghanistan by Russian troops (1979–88), the bloody civil wars (particularly between 1992 and 1996), and the empowerment of the Taliban (1996–2001), satire generally has developed significantly. This progress indicates not only the general development of modern Afghanistani literature but also the overall social progress and widening of the society. On the one hand, since the 1970s, Afghanistan has been ruled by more oppressive regimes than it had been in the 1960s. On the other hand, during this period the general political and cultural awareness among people, particularly the educated classes, increased dramatically. This awareness came not only from the gradual politicization of the society as a result of major political developments but also through a relatively broader familiarity with Western culture and literature and even politics.

In classical Afghanistani (Persian) literature there was a range of satirical references in literary works, but purely satirical works were seldom written, whereas in modern Afghanistani literature satire makes up an important part of literature. In the course of the twentieth century satire appeared under the influence of different sources. It is the outcome of familiarity with Western culture (through the translation of satirical works), as well as the continuation of ancient traditions. In other words, literary satire is among the rare literary forms in modern Afghanistani literature in which imported literary forms have met the indigenous ones.¹

In this article, I attempt to shed light on the emergence of different types and forms of satire and their representatives and the artists who contributed to them, at the same time exploring the connections between political events and the development of satire through its various stages. I also look at the publication of satirical journals and magazines and their contribution to the development of this genre.

In classical Persian literature, satire had very wide representation and some of its elements, in one way or another, can be recognized in the works of most poets. Classical Persian poets and writers had two different approaches: some dealt with it directly, others indirectly. The poets who have subtle satirical references in their works include Ferdawsi (d. 1021), Sanai (d. 1151), Rumi (d. 1273), Sa'di (d. 1292), Hafiz (d. 1390), and Jami (d. 1492), and poets who created some purely satirical works include Anwari (d. 1188), Sozani (d. 1174), ‘Obaid of Zakan (d. 1371), and Safioddin Kashefi (d. 1534). It was ‘Obaid who made the most significant contribution to the development of satire in classical Persian literature. By creating superb works in both prose and verse, he "made the transition from self-serving lampoon and ribaldry to genuine literary and social satire."²

There were many types of literature that contributed to satire in classical literature, but the main ones were hajw (invective, lampoon) and hazl (ribaldry). These two types and concepts were more closely associated with satire than any other.³ Hajw is the opposite of panegyric. The aim of hajw was to damage an opponent's reputation through poetic invective. It was blended with wit and rhetoric and had to be a successful poem in its own right. By contrast hazl, the opposite of seriousness and politeness, aimed to lampoon someone or accuse someone of improper speech or action. The master of hazl in classical Persian literature was Sozani. Traditionally hazl has been considered as having little artistic importance. Its features included rudeness and mainly consisted of sexual subjects as well as using...