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11 - Including Students with Learning Disabilities
- Hong Kong University Press, HKU
- Chapter
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11 Including Students with Learning Disabilities Fuk Chuen HO In this chapter, the learning difficulties of Chinese students in regular classroom contexts are discussed, including: • Issues concerning the definition of learning disabilities; • Assessment approaches and specific strategies for supporting students with learning disabilities to acquire reading skills; and • Assessment approaches and specific strategies for supporting students with learning disabilities to acquire mathematics skills. Defining Learning Disabilities in Western and Chinese Classrooms The first time that the term “learning disability” (LD) appeared in print was in Kirk’s (1962) article in Educating Exceptional Children where it was defined as: a retardation, disorder, or delayed development in one or more of the processes of speech, reading, writing, arithmetic, or other school subject resulting from a psychological handicap caused by a possible cerebral dysfunction and/or emotional or behavioral disturbances. It is not the result of mental retardation, sensory deprivation, or cultural and instructional factors. (Kirk, 1962, p. 263) Bateman (1965), his former student, stated that children who have learning disorders are those who manifest an educationally significant discrepancy between their estimated potential and actual level of performance related to basic disorders 360 Fuk Chuen HO in the learning process. For LD, this has been tied to the notion of IQ-achievement discrepancy. The formulation of the definition of LD by the National Joint Committee on LD (NJCLD) was based on Kirk’s work, with its 1988 version (p. 1), which was restated in 1998, reading as follows: LD is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant disabilities in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or, mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction and may occur across the life span. Problems of selfregulatory behaviors, social perception and social interaction may exist with LD. Although LD may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (for example, sensory impairment, mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance) or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction), they are not the result of those conditions or influences. The key components in this definition are: (1) intellectual functioning within the normal range; (2) a discrepancy between the assumed potential and actual achievement; (3) the inference that LDs are not primarily caused by other disabilities; (4) difficulty in learning one or more academic areas; and (5) a presumption of central nervous system dysfunction (Gargiulo, 2006). The above definition was used as a guideline for Federal Regulations for special education for students with LD in the United States (Hallahan & Mock, 2003). The US Department of Education (2002) estimates that about 5.7% of the population of students aged six to seventeen years is learning disabled. Those with learning disabilities constitute the largest category (about 49.9%) of individuals receiving special education services. The discrepancy between potential and achievement can be calculated by determining a reading expectancy age (REA) and comparing it to current reading achievement (Jennings, Caldwell, & Lerner, 2006, p. 31). Table 11.1 shows how to identify the reading expectancy grade levels by using IQ score and chronological age. An intelligence test, such as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, and a standardized reading test are used to measure potential and current reading achievement respectively. Intelligence tests provide information about students’ aptitude for learning and their specific cognitive characteristics, with the frequently used tests being: the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 4th edition (Williams, Weiss, & Rolfhus, 2003); the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, 5th edition (Roid, 2003); and the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd edition (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004). These formal intelligence tests should be administered by registered psychologists. A common reading achievement test is Group Reading Assessment and Diagnostic Evaluation (Williams, 2001). [34.204.3.195] Project MUSE (2024-03-29 03:00 GMT) Including Students with Learning Disabilities 361 IQ Score 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 6-0 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 6-3 _ _ _ _ _ _ 1.0 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 6-6 _ _ _ _ _ 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 6-9 _ _ _ _...