Autonomy and Armed Separatism in South and Southeast Asia

13. The Last Holdout of an Integrated State: A Century of Resistance to State Penetration in Southern Thailand

235 13 tHe last HolDout oF an integrateD state: a century oF resistance to state penetration in soutHern tHailanD Thomas Parks Similar to other countries in Southeast Asia, Thailand has been affected by internal conflicts for much of the post-colonial era. The resurgence of violence in southern Thailand is the latest episode of an ongoing centre-periphery conflict that has its roots in the consolidation of the Thai state beginning in the early twentieth century. Contrary to the Philippines and Indonesia, however, Thailand has never seriously considered decentralization of state authority as a response to insurgent grievances. While other countries in South and Southeast Asia have recently experimented with autonomy arrangements as response to long-running separatist conflicts, the concept of autonomy has long been anathema to the Thai body politic. There have, however, been periods of relaxed centralization, increased restraint by Thailand’s security forces, and the expansion of political space for conflict-affected minority populations that have been instrumental in fostering a détente between the state and separatist insurgents, leading to significant periods of calm. In most cases, actually, Thailand’s minority populations have been peacefully integrated into the nation-state, especially in regions where the extension of the state happened gradually, with limited intrusion into 236 Thomas Parks local communities. In the Thai context, the critical policy dialogue on the causes and responses to insurgency does not consider autonomy per se, but rather the degree to which centralization of authority is applied over time and the level of state coercion used to enforce this authority. This chapter will analyze the historical ebb and flow of centralization and coercion by the Thai state in conflict-affected peripheral regions. In particular, why have some ethnic minorities been peacefully integrated into the state, while others have resisted state control for decades? We will use a simple model, designed for this analysis, to compare different state approaches for consolidating control in minority regions and corresponding patterns of resistance to state authority. The model will be used to compare the history of centre-periphery relations in Satun province (located at the western end of the border with Malaysia) and the northeastern region (usually referred to as Isaan), as a contrast to the conflict-affected southern border provinces of Pattani, Yala and Narathiwat. While these regions share many similar characteristics — including relatively recent incorporation into the Thai state; a high concentration of non-Thai minority groups; and the deterioration of local autonomy as the state consolidated its power in the early twentieth century — the level of violent resistance to the state has varied considerably between them. If coercive methods of state penetration tend to alienate minority populations, mobilize resistance to the state and exacerbate conflict, why has the Thai government continued to rely on this approach in the south? Furthermore, if the policies and structures of state penetration are widely recognized as irritants to the conflict, why have these policies continued to exist even during periods of calm? This chapter will argue that the core problem in the perpetuation of the conflict lies in the apparatus of state penetration that, now, has deep roots in the southern provinces, and is defended by powerful interests that have heavily invested in the status quo. Ending the conflict in southern Thailand will require a major re-alignment of political interests to allow for a relaxation of central control and the passage of controversial reforms. These are unlikely to occur in the current political environment. state penetration anD tHe origins oF armeD insurgency In South and Southeast Asia, the consolidation of state control in peripheral regions has been a defining challenge for many countries in the post-colonial era, and has provided the impetus for several long-running armed insurgencies. A Century of Resistance to State Penetration in Southern Thailand 237 The nation-building process has usually entailed rapid centralization of state authority and control over local resources, which has shifted the locus of power in the peripheral regions from local elites to central state actors. In many cases, this power shift has engendered centre-periphery conflicts between central state actors and peripheral resistance movements organized by displaced local elites. Broadly speaking, the story of state-building and integration of ethnic minorities has been largely a successful one in Thailand. Compared to other multi-ethnic states in Southeast Asia, Thailand has managed to integrate large populations of ethnic minority groups into the national...