Civilizations in Embrace: The Spread of Ideas and the Transformation of Power; India and Southeast Asia in the Classical Age

Photo Section [Image Plates]

Photo Section Localization and Legitimation the images section highlights different aspects of the diffusion of hindu and Buddhist religious architecture and imagery to Southeast Asia. While not exhaustive, they speak to some of the key themes of the book, especially localization and legitimation. Readers from india or those familiar with indian temples and divine images but new to Southeast Asian temple imagery will note the distinctiveness of the Southeast Asian forms. Plates 1, 2, 3, 4 While indian (hinduism and Buddhism) in conception and architectural form, there are no known examples of these grand monuments of Southeast Asia in india itself, suggesting local agency and purpose, rather than wholesale importation of indian designs and architectures. the pyramidal architecture of Borobudur suggests a Buddhist edifice erected on a pre-indic megalithic foundation. As Quaritch Wales says: although indian “both in conception and in architectural form,” Borobudur also shows “locally-guided evolution”. (Wales 1951: p. 121) 74 Photo Section Plates 5, 6, 7, 8 hinduism practiced in Bali, including temple rituals, differs in significant respects from that in india. hooykaas has identified several features of Balinese hinduism which are different from the indian brand. these include the Balinese belief that one is reborn within one’s groups of relatives, that gods normally live in mountains and lakes and not in temples, and that cremation should be performed only depending on one’s social position. (hooykaas p. 25, cited in Wolters 1982: 59) Plates 9, 10 Despite keeping to its central characters, the Javanese version of Ramayana not only omits many aspects of the Valmiki Ramayana of india, but also introduces indigenous deities unrecognizable to indians. As Wolters put it, the old Javanese Ramayana offers an example of “a foreign text — the famous indian epic — [that was] extensively reworked in Java to enable to local elite to savour and perhaps recite it aloud.” (Wolters 1999: 186). Among other things, the indian version of the epic from which Javanese adapted their Ramayana, the Bhattikavya, was used as a model only for the first half of the Javanese poem. in the second half, the Javanese introduced Javanese indigenous deities, and “improvised a happy ending to the Rama story”. (Wolters 1999: 186) Plate 11 the Funeral of Ravana (tosakan), temple of the emerald Buddha, Grand Palace, Bangkok, thailand: the palace of Ravana (Tosakan in thai), like all depictions of buildings in the mural paintings of Ramayana (Ramakian) at the temple, is traditional thai style, rather than indian, while the face images on the gate of Ravana’s palace evokes the Bayon of cambodia, a historic enemy of Siam. Plate 12 Borobudur bas relief: “the wonderful bas-reliefs of the Borobudur (sic) the originality and freedom for which they are so justly famous are not merely a matter of local variation in the 75 Photo Section rendering of scenes from the Lalita Vistara and Jataka stories, the introduction of Javanese animals and plants, etc., … they [also] find scope for expression in the sculptural technique itself. For although this must have been mainly learnt from india, the peculiar refinement and delicacy, on which all have remarked, probably in some degree reflect the ability that the Javanese had acquired when their megalithic forebears (sic) were learning to express themselves naturalistically under han guidance.” (Wales 1974: 122) Plates 13, 14 the borrowing and localization of hindu-Buddhist religion and political ideas might have been motivated by a ruler’s desire and need for legitimation and to consolidate small chiefdoms into major states. in classical Southeast Asia, temples (both hindu and Buddhist) had a major place in the organization of the state and role in the legitimation of the ruler’s authority. Battle scenes depicted in bas reliefs had a significant legitimizing function, signifying the ruler’s power and prestige. Plate 15 Bayon, cambodia, defaced Buddha. Religion and politics were inseparable in classical Southeast Asia. one example is the defacing of Buddha images and their superimposition by hindu deities in Bayon. Plate 16 Borobudur: Sudhana near Kutagara of Maitreya: in the original indian script of Gandhavyuha, Sudhana is the son of a merchant, a commoner. But in Borobudur, he is presented as a royal-like figure, visiting Maitreya and other deities with regalia and military entourage. Julie Gifford argues that “By picturing Sudhana as a king leading a martial procession, the designers of Borobudur set up a homology between the Pilgrim who becomes a Bodhisattva and the Sailendra king...