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353 Over the past 25 years, much has been learned about wetland restoration and creation (e.g., Kusler and Kentula 1990; National Research Council 1992, 1994, 2001; Zedler 2000, 2006; Teal and Peterson 2005; Falk et al. 2006; Mitsch 2006). Wetland regulations and government regulatory programs are largely responsible for promoting wetland restoration and creation as compensation for permitted wetland losses (see Mitigation in Chapter 9). Monitoring of mitigation projects has been performed to determine compliance with permit requirements . Many government agencies have also initiated proactive wetland restoration programs independent of the regulatory process to simply restore wetlands because they provide valued environmental services to society. Consequently, government agencies , cooperating institutions and organizations , and private consulting firms have gained hands-on experience in wetland restoration, creation, and monitoring. In this chapter I describe in general terms several types of projects, project planning, data needs, and criteria that may be used for tracking progress. I also provide examples of specific projects and their accomplishments to illustrate real-world applications. The discussion focuses on restoration and creation and monitoring for those types of projects. Other forms of monitoring may be conducted to track ecological changes in coastal wetlands in response to climate change (e.g., sea-level rise and changes in 11 Tidal Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Monitoring regional ­ precipitation) or tectonic activity, but these are not emphasized here. Defining Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement Classifying projects as restoration, creation, and enhancement projects may seem at first glance to be rather obvious and unnecessary , but in many cases the differences are subtle. The terms need definition and some examples would be useful before discussing the subjects in more detail and addressing project planning, goal setting, and design monitoring. Wetland restoration can be separated into two types: re-establishment and rehabilitation (Figure 11.1). Re-establishment involves bringing a wetland back at a site where it formerly existed; in other words, restoring a former wetland. This type of restoration will produce an increase in wetland extent (area) as well as functions. An example would be restoring tidal flooding to a former wetland that had been diked, drained, and previously converted to cropland . Another example would be removing fill from former tidal wetland that had been filled for a parking lot. In contrast, rehabilitation deals with improving conditions for an existing wetland that is degraded. Although this action does not increase wetland area, it seeks to restore lost or diminished functions, leading to a net gain in wetland functions. 354  Chapter 11 A ­ common example of rehabilitation is restoring tidal flow to a tidal wetland with limited tidal influence due to tide gates or undersized culverts. Wetland creation involves building a wetland where one did not exist since Colonial times, for example. It is not the site of a former wetland, but either upland (dryland) or water. Constructing a wetland in those locations seeks to increase wetland extent and functions. Wetlands can be created by excavating an upland (dryland) area to an elevation subject to frequent tidal flooding or by depositing sufficient fill in water to raise the bottom to the level of the intertidal zone. Creating a marsh by adding fill to a mudflat is typically considered wetland creation, while it could be viewed as a type of enhancement since the mudflat is technically a wetland. Sometimes the line is blurry between what constitutes wetland restoration or creation. For example, if the shallow bottom to be filled was a former marsh that was lost due to coastal subsidence and erosion, creating marsh there would be considered wetland restoration, although the restoration practices would be more typical of those used in creation projects. Wetland enhancement is the act of modifying a wetland to attain a level of a desired function above or different from that which the wetland type is normally capable of reaching. The targeted function may even be a function that the wetland did not perform. The wetland is altered in some way to satisfy the management objective . It may change the wetland to another type (e.g., tidal marsh to aquatic bed) or affect the wetland’s hydrology, vegetation, wildlife use, or other properties. Enhancement could be applied to a pristine wetland or a degraded one. In either case it modifies the wetland’s characteristics for the benefit of one or more functions at the expense of other functions. Examples include diking of natural tidal wetlands to create waterfowl Figure 11.1. Three examples of potential­ restoration projects: (a) diked former tidal...

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