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15 1 From Earthly Temple to Heavenly Temple Impurity in Early Jewish Mysticism The theology that would become Kabbalah derived in part from the mystical experiences and ascetical practices that were preserved in the Hekhalot literature . Scholars vary widely in their dating of Hekhalot literature, some dating its origin as early as the second century CE, thereby situating the literature in the rabbinic period, and others extending its duration through the thirteenth century.1 These traditions likely originated in Palestine, then transmitted from there to Babylonia, Cairo, and Italy before many texts were eventually redacted in the twelfth through thirteenth centuries by the German Pietists.2 Hekhalot literature, like much of subsequent Jewish mysticism, is informed by the Temple cult. The term Hekhal refers in temple architecture to the vestibule in front of the Holy of Holies; in the mystical tradition, this physical construct is abstracted to refer to the heavenly palaces through which the adept must past to reach the throne of God.3 Those aspiring to achieve a mystical vision are often described as Merkavah mystics. The term Merkavah refers to Ezekiel’s vision of a mobile temple. Just as Ezekiel transformed the Holy of Holies into a mobile symbol of the connection to God to satisfy the spiritual needs of a people in exile, so too the Merkavah mystics moved the Temple to the heavens themselves, so that the mystic could become like a latter-day high priest and enter a celestial Holy of Holies.4 These mystics believed that they must actively pursue God, strengthening themselves for this task by adhering to ascetic prerequisites and undergoing moral and ritual purification.5 Joseph Dan identified three types of merkavah mystical experience: (1) the heavenly ascent, (2) the adjuration of an angel to earth, and (3) contemplations on the measurements of God’s body (Shiur Qomah).6 The first two types are relevant here. For the heavenly ascent, the adept must first undergo 16 · Early Jewish Mysticism ascetic preparations, whereafter he may embark upon the dangerous journey to the divine realm. Inhospitable angels immediately attempt to bar his entry, but magical prayers and the powerful name of God aid his admittance to the heavenly palaces. If he is true to his task, he will eventually attain his goal: vision of the divine throne and participation in the angelic liturgy.7 For the second type of merkavah experience, the adjuration,8 the mystic uses magical incantations, similar to those found on Babylonian magic bowls and amulets .9 If the adjuration is successful, an angel known as the Prince of Torah (Sar Torah) will appear to divulge the secrets of Torah.10 Access to this heavenly Temple and divine secrets, like access to the Jerusalem Temple, is, in the Hekhalot literature, restricted to the ritually pure.11 Seminal or menstrual pollution preclude the mystic from achieving his goal, thus the rationale for the observance of the laws of menstrual impurity and seminal pollution differs greatly from the talmudic. The rabbis of the Talmud were torn between the desire for marriage and children and the desire for Torah study. Many felt that sexual desire was inimical to divine pursuits and therefore prohibited ejaculants from performing sacred acts, such as reading the Torah and praying for the community, lest rabbis copulate “like roosters in a hen yard.”12 These prohibitions demonstrate the rabbis’ ambivalence toward sexuality and their seduction by Hellenistic and Christian asceticism, rather than cultic concerns.13 Indeed, the Talmud focuses on the sexual rather than the cultic aspect of menstrual isolation. Menstruants are prohibited only from performing domestic tasks that would promote intimacy between husband and wife. Hekhalot literature, by contrast, focuses on the cult, with many texts enlarging upon Temple cult rituals to create a celestial cult in a world without a terrestrial Temple.14 Physical purity therefore remains essential after the destruction of the physical Temple because human impurity disqualifies adepts from divine service and Torah knowledge. In contrast to cultic ritual, however, the ascetic prerequisites of Hekhalot literature emphasize avoiding seminal pollution over menstrual impurity or menstruants. That is not to say that menstruation was marginalized or ignored . Rather, Hekhalot literature transvalues menstrual impurity and makes it the province of men. Indeed, some Hekhalot texts co-opt menstrual purificatory rituals and transform them into ascetic mystical techniques. Others privilege knowledge of menstrual laws as one of the goals of the mystical experience . Another text uses extra-rabbinic halakhic (legal) standards to transform menstrual impurity into...

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