Fair Ways: How Six Black Golfers Won Civil Rights in Beaumont, Texas

NOTES

NOTES Preface 1. Marshall quoted in Howard Ball, A Defiant Life: Thurgood Marshall and the Persistence of Racism in America (New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1998), 381–82. The progress achieved by African Americans since World War II is summarized in Henry J. Abraham and Barbara A. Perry, Freedom and the Court: Civil Rights and Liberties in the United States, 6th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 321–26. 2. Marshall quoted in Ball, A Defiant Life, 381–82. Prologue 1. Beaumont City Council minutes, June 14, 1955, City Record 0016, Tyrrell Historical Library, Beaumont, Tex. 2. Ibid.; Beaumont Journal, June 14, 1955; Beaumont Enterprise, June 15, 1955. 3. Mayor Elmo Beard quoted in Beaumont City Council minutes, June 14, 1955. 4. Mayor Beard and Theodore Johns quoted in ibid. 5. Ibid. (The 1943 race riot is discussed in chapter 1.) 6. Ibid. Chapter 1 1. United States, Bureau of the Census, Census of Population, 1950: Seventeenth Census of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1952) (hereafter cited as U.S. Census, 1950). The 1950 census shows Beaumont’s population to have been 94,014, with 29.4 percent nonwhite. The Beaumont City Directory 1956 ([Dallas: Morrison & Fourmy Directory Company, 1956], ix) estimates Beaumont’s 1955 population to have been 110,000, with 32,000 nonwhite. 2. Beaumonter (newsletter of the Beaumont Chamber of Commerce) 1, no. 1 (1955): 1–4 (all Beaumont Chamber of Commerce materials are located in the Beaumont Chamber of Commerce Collection, Tyrrell Historical Library, Beaumont, Tex.); Beaumont City Directory 1956, introduction , x–xi. 184 NOTES TO PAGES 7–10 3. Elmo Reed Beard obituary, Beaumont Enterprise, Mar. 18, 1997. 4. Beaumont City Directory 1956, introduction, vii–xxiii; Beaumont Chamber of Commerce, Come to Beaumont (marketing brochure), ca. 1955. 5. Beaumonter 5, no. 2 (1958): 1–4; Beaumont Chamber of Commerce, Annual Report, 1954. 6. Beaumont City Directory 1956, Alphabetical List of Names, 104–105, 123–24. The city council service of Venza, an Italian American, and Cokinos, a Greek American, demonstrated the immigration and assimilation of various ethnic groups, not only Italian and Greek but also Acadian French, Mexican, Lebanese, Jewish, and others, as documented in Portrait of a People: An Ethnic History of Beaumont, Texas (Beaumont, Tex.: Beaumont Historical Landmark Commission, undated ). 7. Beaumont Chamber of Commerce, Come to Beaumont. 8. Beaumont history is surveyed in Judith W. Linsley and Ellen W. Rienstra, Beaumont: A Chronicle of Promise (Woodland Hills, Calif.: Windsor Publications, 1982); also in John H. Walker and Gwendolyn Wingate, Beaumont: A Pictorial History (Norfolk, Va.: Donning Company, 1983). Slavery, secession, and antebellum conditions in Beaumont are covered in Robert J. Robertson, “Beaumont on the Eve of the Civil War, As Seen in the Beaumont Banner,” Texas Gulf Historical and Biographical Record 30, no. 1 (1994): 8–26. 9. Slavery in Beaumont is covered in Robert J. Robertson, “Slavery and the Coming of the Civil War, As Seen in the Beaumont Banner,” East Texas Historical Journal 34 (1996): 14–29. The African American experience in Beaumont during Reconstruction and “redemption” is covered briefly in Robert J. Robertson, Her Majesty’s Texans: Two English Immigrants in Reconstruction Texas (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1998), 43–69. 10. The status of African Americans in the South during the 1950s is summarized in James T. Patterson, Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 380–84. The development of Jim Crow segregation in the South is discussed in Edward L. Ayers, Southern Crossing: A History of the American South, 1877– 1906 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 40–41, 92–100, 263– 64; John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro Americans, 4th ed. (New York: Knopf, 1974), 267–76, 320–22; Stephan Thernstrom and Abigail Thernstrom, America in Black and White: One Nation, Indivisible (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997), 25–52; and C. Vann Woodward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow, 2nd rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), xvii, 5–10, 43–45, 65, 70–116. The development of Jim Crow segregation in Texas is discussed in Alwyn Barr, Black Texans: A History of Negroes in Texas, 1528–1971 (Austin : Pemberton Press, 1973), 140–71; and W. Marvin Dulaney, “African Americans,” in The New Handbook of Texas, ed. Ron C. Tyler (Austin: NOTES TO PAGES 10–14 185 Texas State Historical Association, 1996), 1...