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notes 269 1. Neil Postman, The End of Education (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1995), x. 2. Many of the thoughts found under this heading are published in Susan T. Gardner, “Teaching Freedom,” Analytic Teaching 21, no. 1 (November 2000): 21–28. 3. Clearly, many animals, perhaps most, are conscious of themselves in relationship to other entities. The capacity to be aware of oneself, however, is a matter of degree. Language is a catalyst that greatly nurtures the expansion of self-consciousness (in particular, the capacity to imagine oneself far into the future)—hence, the importance of the phrase “linguistically enhanced self-consciousness.” 4. Gabriel Marcel, “Mortality, Hope, and Freedom,” in Existentialism and the Philosophical Tradition, ed. D. Barsoum Raymond (Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1991), 341. 5. “External” has been placed in quotation marks to signal that the force of any external stimulus is not strictly external . It is also a function of the internal state of the conscious being. For example, the appetitive pull of food is at least partially a function of the degree to which the conscious being in question is hungry. 6. Many of the ideas incorporated under this heading can be found in Susan T. Gardner, “Autonomy: A Philosophical Capture,” Practical Philosophy 3, no. 3 (April 2001): 19–22. 7. This account of self-consciousness finds its roots in the works of George Herbert Mead, On Social Psychology, ed. A. Strauss (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934). Mead’s work gave rise to a movement referred to as symbolic interactionism. The reader will note that the term “symbolic interaction” is used frequently in the present work. Note: Unlike sign language, symbolic language can be used to refer to events outside the here and now. 8. Deductive argumentation is the kind of argument that moves value; it is studied in detail in Part II. 9. As explained in note 5, “external” has been placed in quotation marks to indicate that the force of any external stimulus is not strictly external. It is also a function of the internal state of the conscious being. 10. “And” has been italicized to emphasize the importance of symbolic language. Whereas the emergence of selfconsciousness appears to be a necessary condition for the development of symbolic language, symbolic language, in turn, is necessary for the development of the kind of self-consciousness that allows us to imagine ourselves into varying depths of our future. 11. An imagined action and an imagined reinforcement become associated through linguistic deductive argumentation (e.g., you should share toys because it will show that you are a kind and caring person). 12. Recognizing hidden premises is necessary if one is to become competent in seeing the values that anchor practical reasoning. Practice in finding hidden premises is incorporated into a number of exercises in Part II. 13. Kantian scholars will note the similarity to Immanuel Kant’s “Kingdom of Ends”—but there is a difference. See the next section. 14. Specifically, Kant argued for the importance of utilizing a “universalization” process. It is argued here that although this process may be helpful in eliminating bias, a more powerful process is subjecting our judgment to the actual critique of our strongest opposition. 15. Richard Hare, Freedom and Reason (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1967), 159–85. 16. “Sentiments in their development will be very greatly determined by accidental causes. . . . To satisfy our doubts, therefore, it is necessary that a method should be found by which our beliefs may be determined by nothing human, but by some external permanency—by something upon which our thinking has no effect. . . . Such is the method of science.” Charles Sanders Peirce, The Fixation of Belief, in Philosophical Writings of Peirce, ed. Justus Buchler (New York: Dover Publications, 1955), 18. 17. “The attainment of a unified method means that the fundamental unity of the structure of inquiry in common sense and science be recognized, their difference being one in the problems with which they are directly concerned , not in their respective logics.” John Dewey, Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (New York: Henry Holt, 1938), 81. 270 notes 18. Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, vol. 1, Reason and the Rationalization of Society, trans. Thomas McCarthy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992 [German text: 1981]). Specifically, Habermas argues that you cannot judge the adequacy of an agent’s reasoned support of her assertions and/or actions—an adequacy that can nonetheless be objectively measured (22, 25) according to how it stands...

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