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Muh .ammad Abduh (1849–1905) From Destiny and Fate T he europeans believe that there is no difference between the doctrine of destiny and fate (al-qad .ā wa al-qadar) and the doctrine of the theological school of the Predestinarians (al-Jabrı̄yya), who say that the human being is compelled absolutely in all of his acts. They imagine that with the doctrine of destiny (al-qad .ā) Muslims see themselves as a feather floating in the air and buffeted by the wind wherever it goes. Indeed, if it were to occur to the minds of people that they have no choice in word or deed or in motion or rest, and that all of this is subject to a compelling force or a coercive power, there is no doubt that it would retard their strength and they would lose the fruits of the powers of capability and understanding that God granted them. It would also erase from their imaginations the urge to strive and earn. . . . This is the view of a faction among the Europeans and this approach is also followed by many of the weak-minded in the East. However, I am not afraid to state: This view is false, their opinion is wrong, their conjecture is baseless, and they have imposed a lie on God and the Muslims alike. There is not a single Muslim in this present time—neither Sunnı̄ nor Shı̄ı̄ nor Zaydı̄ nor Ismāı̄lı̄, nor Wahhābı̄ nor Khārijı̄—that follows the theological school of absolute predestination or believes in the ultimate denial of choice to the human will. On the contrary, every one of these Muslim sects believes that there is an element of choice (juz ikhtiyārı̄) in their actions (which is called kasb), and that this [element of choice] is ultimately responsible for their reward or punishment. They further believe that this element of choice makes them accountable for what God has bestowed upon them, that in a like manner they are asked to follow the divine commands and prohibitions that call to every good and guide to every success, and that this element of choice is the basis of juridical responsibility (al-taklı̄f al-sharı̄), through which [God’s] wisdom and justice is made complete. 97 98 Muh . ammad Abduh Indeed there used to be among the Muslims a sect known as al-Jabrı̄yya, which taught that the human being was compelled in all of his acts by a compulsion that was not tainted by choice. . . . However, the methodology of this sect is considered by [today’s] Muslims to be of no more value than the corrupt disputations of the Sophists. The leaders of this school died out in the fourth century of the Hijra and no trace of them has remained. Therefore, the doctrine of compulsion ( jabr) cannot be considered the source of the doctrine of destiny and fate (al-qad .ā wa al-qadar) and there is no basis for this belief on the part of the conjecturers. The doctrine of destiny is supported by a conclusive proof and in fact the concept of the instinct (al-fit .ra) alludes to this. It is easy for anyone who thinks to believe that every event has a cause that is near to it in time. However, one sees in the chain of causes only [the cause] that is present to him: no one knows the full past except the one who originated the pattern [in the first place]. Thus, in the unfolding of every chain of events there is a clear opening for the determination (taqdı̄r) of [God], the Glorious, the All-Knowing. As for what the human being wills (irādat al-insān), this is created, just like the created moments in the chain of causation. The act of will is nothing but an effect (athar) produced by the human understanding (idrāk), whereas the understanding is a product of the mind (al-nafs ), according to what occurs to the senses and feelings and as a response of one’s instinctive nature to the needs. Even a fool (not to mention an intelligent person) understands that the powers of thought and will are part of the apparent universe (li-z .awāhir al-kawn); however, [the basis of the doctrine of destiny and fate] is that the causes that one sees outwardly are effects that occur by the hand of the greatest Governor of the Universe, who originates all things according...

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