Spanish as a Heritage Language in the United States: The State of the Field

13. Language Assessment: Key Theoretical Considerations in the Academic Placement of Spanish Heritage Language Learners

C H A P T E R 13 Language Assessment KEY THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ACADEMIC PLACEMENT OF SPANISH HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS Marta Fairclough, University of Houston I N EDUCATION, assessment usually encompasses various procedures, ranging from informal observations and interviews to examinations or tests, that are designed to measure in some way the knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and so on, of an individual student, a group of learners, an institution, or a whole educational system. In contrast, tests ‘‘denote a particular type of formal, often carefully designed instruments’’ (Huhta 2008, 469). More specifically, language testing ‘‘is a process of gathering information about test-takers from observed performance under test conditions. This is done in order to draw inferences either about the likely quality of performance by the test-taker under non-test conditions, or about the test-taker’s standing in relation to a relevant domain of knowledge and abilities’’ (McNamara 2004, 765). In recent decades, the field of language assessment has significantly expanded, drawing on theoretical frameworks developed in language acquisition studies (e.g., Pienemann, Johnson, and Brindley 1988) and in models of language proficiency (Bachman 1990; Canale and Swain 1980). On a more practical level, ‘‘advances in the technology of test design and development, along with the availability and use of ever more sophisticated computer- and Web-based applications for test administration, scoring and analysis, have resulted in a greater range of test formats and assessment procedures than has ever been available’’ (Bachman 2000, 2). Whereas assessment research on second-language (L2) learning, especially English, has constantly expanded in the last few decades, similar research in heritage language (HL) education has been limited. The number of HL learners 259 260 MARTA FAIRCLOUGH enrolling in Spanish courses at US colleges and universities has increased steadily (see chapter 10 in this volume, by Beaudrie) and solid, well-researched measures of HL general proficiency are desperately needed at the postsecondary level to test incoming students. This chapter has two purposes: (1) to review some key issues in language assessment—including the purpose of testing, types of assessments , proficiency models, test qualities, and improvements in test design due to advances in technology; and (2) to summarize the research on language testing in HL education in the United States, focusing on the academic placement of Spanish heritage language (SHL) learners. By linking what the language assessment field has to offer to information about testing within HL education, this chapter presents key issues in language assessment and their implications for SHL, and suggests directions for future research. LANGUAGE ASSESSMENT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR HERITAGE LANGUAGE EDUCATION A language test can be administered for educational, political, social, or economic reasons (e.g., immigration, employment) (McNamara 2004). There are three main educational purposes for testing: administrative (to place students into or exempt them from specific courses), instructional (to diagnose their language needs, determine if learning objectives are being met, and provide feedback on learning), or for research (to evaluate teaching methods or conduct experiments) (Cohen 1994). Although all uses of tests have value within the educational process, testing for administrative purposes has received special attention within HL education, mostly because placement exams are frequently the basis for language instruction or for other types of assessments. Types of Assessments The different types of language tests are usually presented as dichotomies or opposed models, based on the purpose of the test, its content, or its design.1 Table 13.1 presents the more common types. Purpura (2010) broadly classifies assessment tasks as receptive (e.g., multiplechoice items), limited production (e.g., cloze tests), and extended production (e.g., oral interview). Some activities commonly used to assess language skills include fill-in-the-blank grammar tests, cloze tasks, multiple-choice and openended comprehension questions, listening comprehension checklists, structured and open writing tasks, and planned or improvised oral interviews (Salaberry and Cohen 2007). All these types of tasks can be applied with HL learners. The NEH Focus Group (2003) recommends that, for those students who are literate in the HL, Table 13.1 Types of Language Tests Norm-referenced Criterion-referenced • Measure global abilities or • Measure well-defined instructional proficiencies (e.g., overall academic objectives, often specific to a reading ability in a certain language). particular language course or program • Measure relative ability by (e.g., narration skill in Spanish). interpreting a student’s score relative • Make an...