Conflict and Cooperation in the Global Commons: A Comprehensive Approach for International Security

1. Problems in Collective Action

23 CHAP TER 1 Problems in Collective Action SANDRA R. LEAVITT Global public goods can only be attained if countries work together, and globalization has only increased this fundamental interdependence. —Kofi Annan, “Endorsements” Soft and hard power are intrinsically tied to the measured use of global public goods that exist in the global commons. Diplomatic power relies heavily on unfettered access to airspace through which national interests are promoted by governments, to oceans in which the balance of power is enforced in accordance with the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, and to both outer space and cyberspace by which allies, partners, adversaries, and international organizations communicate and inform the global public.1 Ideological power encompasses for many nations the ideals of democracy, free trade, universal human rights, and advancement of scientific knowledge and is projected through the international media and private citizens who travel and work abroad with relative ease. Today economic and military power depend almost equally on unrestricted access to and use of the resources within the air, maritime, space, and cyber domains. In the final analysis national interests cannot be pursued or achieved without secure access to the global commons. Use of the commons must be maintained in concert with formal and informal groups. Collaboration can provide efficient responses to threats, lower the cost of unilateral action, and multiply influence and resources.2 Some problems cannot be resolved or goods supplied without the participation of large numbers of people acting for the common good rather than simply out of self-interest. Such action Problems in Collective Action 24 occurs when a member of a group “acts as a representative of the group and where the action is directed at improving the conditions of the group as a whole” and/or influencing others to adopt policies that favor the group’s objectives.3 This will not preclude acts of self-interest but it requires creating a shared identity , compromising in favor of the group, investing time and resources, and lessening the role of national sovereignty. The fundamental difficulty of getting individuals and nations to create and nurture global public goods—like the global commons and the freedom, prosperity , and capabilities that they provide—is forging and maintaining collective action. Our understanding of this dynamic and how to overcome it has been the task of political and social scientists for several decades, both within their respective fields and through multidisciplinary research efforts. The conclusions of this academic collaboration indicate the importance of developing a practical, comprehensive approach to addressing the problems of generating collective action in the commons. This chapter examines the security dynamics of forming collective action groups that are focused on securing the global commons. It elucidates the basic features of public goods that distinguish them from private goods and expounds on the global commons as sources of goods that are vital to international security . It also analyzes problems in collective action in terms of social mobilization , suboptimal collective nature of rational individual choices, free riders, and the tragedy of the commons. The tendency to overuse and misuse the commons is discussed in light of future conflicts and threats posed by negative externalities. Finally, three strategies are considered for resolving problems of collective action: capitalizing on the enabling dynamics of interpersonal relationships within groups, continuing to make investments in formal institutions that inculcate desired norms and values, and nurturing the development of informal transnational networks , which have proliferated as many nations become more interdependent on one another. Each speaks to shared benefits and individual incentives for collective action. FEATURES OF PUBLIC GOODS There are three features of public goods. The first is nonexcludability, which means that once supplied it is nearly impossible to deny the use of the goods to others.4 The second feature is nonrivalry, or the dynamic that use of public goods by a person or nation typically does not detract from their use by others. And some scholars posit a third feature, namely, jointness of supply.5 This suggests that public goods need voluntary cooperation to supply and maintain them because of the first two features or because “none could afford to supply them on their own.”6 These features can be contrasted with private goods, which are bought and sold sandra r. leavitt 25 in a competitive market driven by the laws of supply and demand and furnished...