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3. Reflections on Education, 1875--1891
- University of Iowa Press
- Chapter
- Additional Information
Irma attended school during a time when educational theories about learning and the practices of teaching — that is, recitation, rote memorization , repetitive practice, group work, attendance at lectures in which certain subjects were taught or principles, philosophies, or theories were outlined — were changing, and taking on a more American tenor.1 Up until the 1890s, and, indeed for a while after, prevailing educational theories and pedagogical methods had been rooted primarily in European models. These models were based in large part upon the philosophies of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), who saw education as the crucial component in improving life, and Georg Wilhelm Hegel (1770–1831), who believed education was a lifelong process.2 To these, American educators added the educational techniques of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) who, having studied child development, called for “the natural, balanced, and harmonious development of all capacities of the child” and advocated “balanced growth of head, heart, and hand.”3 They also looked to Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841), “the father of both the science of education and of modern psychology.” Herbart’s sequence for learning involved (1) preparation or development of connections between what is known and what is to be learned, (2) presentation of material in a sound psychological manner, (3) association of the newly learned material with prior learning, (4) generalization from the concrete to the abstract , and (5) use of the newly acquired knowledge to pursue more knowledge.4 Then American educators, attending to children’s needs for early educational experiences, incorporated the ideas of Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852) about kindergarten into the system. Finally, at the start of the twentieth century, educational reformers mixed in the idealism of Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882), the pragmatism of William James (1842–1910), and the scientific emphasis of Herbert Spencer (1820– Reflections on Education, 1875–1891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1903) to create an unique American philosophical and pedagogical system called progressivism. Progressivism was more than a political movement; it was more than an educational movement. Its approach to life and learning was in marked contrast to earlier educational approaches rooted in social efficiency, ones that emphasized classroom control and management within a structured curriculum that focused on basic skills. Instead, progressivism encompassed a concern with social life and cut across many sectors of American society. Its theories and philosophical applications were involved with the public nature of institutions and aesthetic innovations.5 The Progressive Movement stressed two basic principles: continuity and interaction. In other words, each learning experience was to be nurtured by the previous experience, and everything learned was subject to revision based upon later learning. Progressivism promoted independent thinking, creativity, and expression of feeling. It was geared to direct the evolution of society toward socially desirable ends. Progressivists assumed that science was the method by which this evolution could be brought about. The development of intelligence , morals, and values was considered crucial for this endeavor. Jane Addams, who incorporated Froebel’s notions into her Hull House curriculum during the 1890s, helped build the Progressive Education Movement, along with the other two great American educational reformers , Ella Flagg Young (1845–1918) and John Dewey (1859–1952). Irma reflected on her early educational experiences during this critical juncture in American curriculum history: There’s a difference between the process of learning and getting an education. Once started, the process [gets] going and it never stops — it reveals insights, vistas of beauty. It’s the answer to a child’s “I wonder.”6 Quite naturally when we think of education we think of schools. Schools though give one the tools with which to carve out our educations.7 Education in growing Chicago would naturally be different from education in New York or in the German village where my mother was educated. Yet if education is a process of drawing [possibilities] out, it is interesting to speculate [about the differences]. . . . If the possibilities are within us, what we mean by education is exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 7 5 – 1 8 9 1 [ 27 to the heritage of the race and to whatever environment chance may provide.8 Both my father and mother had come to America shortly after the Civil War. Mother had gone to a village school in Germany and throughout my childhood and that of my two brothers and sisters took constant delight in the opportunities our public schools offered us.9 What about our education?10 There was no psychology of learning [when I began going to school].11 We were exposed to...