Parks and People: Managing Outdoor Recreation at Acadia National Park

13. Alternative Measurement Approaches for Normative Standards of Crowding in Parks and Outdoor Recreation

13 Alternative Measurement Approaches for Normative Standards of Crowding in Parks and Outdoor Recreation As research on normative standards for crowding and other impacts of outdoor recreation has proceeded, several approaches to measuring norms have evolved. Moreover, several issues surrounding norm measurement and application also have arisen. The purposes of the study described in this chapter were to apply and compare alternative approaches to measuring crowding norms and to identify and explore several issues surrounding measurement and application of crowding norms. Traditionally, crowding norms have been measured using a “numerical” approach. For example, respondents are asked to evaluate a range of encounters (0, 5, 10, 15, etc.) with other groups per day along trails. The personal norms derived are aggregated and graphed to construct a “norm curve” from which social norms can be identified (as illustrated throughout the book). This numerical approach is often shortened to reduce respondent burden by simply asking respondents in an open-ended format to report the maximum acceptable number of encounters with other groups per day. These two approaches might be called the “long” and “short” versions of this measurement technique. More recently, visual approaches to measuring crowding and other recreation -related norms have been developed whereby a range of visitor use levels are portrayed through a series of computer-generated photographs. (This issue is described more fully in chapter 12.) As with the numerical approach described above, long and short versions of this measurement technique can be used. The long version asks respondents to evaluate each  This chapter is an edited version of the following paper: Robert Manning, William Valliere , Ben Wang, and Charles Jacobi, “Crowding Norms: Alternative Measurement Approaches ,” Leisure Sciences 21, no. 2 (1999): 97–115. A L T E R N A T I V E M E A S U R E M E N T A P P R O A C H E S F O R C R O W D I N G  photograph in a series of photographs. The short version asks respondents to select the photograph that illustrates the highest use or impact level acceptable. An issue implicit in all of these measurement approaches concerns the evaluative dimension used in these questions. When respondents have been asked to evaluate a range of use levels and related impacts, the response scale has included terminology specifying a number of evaluative dimensions, such as “preference,” “acceptability,” and “tolerance.” These alternative evaluative dimensions may have substantially different meanings to respondents and may result in significantly different personal and social norms. A related issue concerns the normative nature of evaluation measures. Researchers applying normative theory and techniques to outdoor recreation have noted several important elements of norms as they traditionally are defined (Heywood 1993a, 1993b, 1996a, 1996b; Noe 1992; Roggenbuck et al. 1991; Shelby and Vaske 1991; Shelby, Vaske, and Donnelly 1996; Williams , Roggenbuck, and Bange 1991). One of these elements suggests that social norms usually are interpreted as being applied externally. That is, individuals tailor and conform their behavior to what they believe is expected of them by social groups or society at large. This suggests that norms might be measured by asking respondents about what recreation conditions or impacts they believe other visitors feel are appropriate or acceptable. A second element of social norms as traditionally defined suggests that norms have a strong obligatory nature. That is, norms define what “should” be. This suggests that norms might be measured by asking respondents about what recreation conditions or level of impacts they feel managers should maintain. STUDY METHODS The norm measurement approaches and issues identified here were incorporated in a series of studies of crowding on the carriage roads of Acadia. The studies included two surveys of carriage road users and a survey of residents of communities in surrounding towns. The norm measurement approaches and issues described above were incorporated into these studies in the following ways: I N D I C A T O R S A N D S T A N D A R D S O F Q U A L I T Y  1.Visual Approach A visual approach to norm measurement was used by producing a series of nineteen photographs of a generic 100-meter section of carriage roads showing varying levels and types of use. This measure is called persons-perviewscape ” (ppv). Types of use were restricted to hikers and bikers because these are the predominant uses. Sample photographs...