International Practices in Special Education: Debates and Challenges

1. A Journey from Awareness and Advocacy to Action: Special Education in the United States

1 A Journey from Awareness and Advocacy to Action: Special Education in the United States 21 Mark P. Mostert The United States of America, a federal constitutional republic of 50 states and 1 federal district, is one of the world’s most diverse and multicultural nations. Originally inhabited by native peoples, including Native Americans and Hawaiians, the United States has experienced large influxes of immigrants, earlier from European countries and more recently from Latin America and Asia. The United States is one of the five largest countries on earth; it covers more than 9.8 million square kilometers. THE SOCIA L CONTEXT The U.S. population of more than 311 million ranks third in the world (after China and India) and currently has a positive population growth. Although increasingly diverse, Caucasian Americans still make up the largest percentage of Americans. Other large minority groups (African Americans, Hispanic Americans) continue to grow. The most significant trend is the population increase among Hispanic groups, which are now considered the second largest population group followed by African Americans (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011). The U.S. population breakdown appears in Table 1. The U.S. pretax median household income in 2007 was $49,777 ranging from $32,584 for African American households to $65,469 for Asian American households. Approximately 13% of the U.S. population lives below the poverty line (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). The vast majority of Americans (82%) reside in urban and suburban areas. Four cities have populations larger than 2 million (New York, Houston, Los Angeles, and Chicago), a major shift from the 18th century when more than 90% of Americans were farmers. Despite recent economic problems, the U.S. economy is still considered the largest in the world, with a 2009 gross domestic product estimated at $14.3 trillion (Bureau of Economic Statistics, 2011). Clearly, all societies embody complex social and cultural forces. In the following, I explain a few major factors that have had lasting and prominent effects on U.S. special education. Poverty. Almost 40% of children and youth in the United States come from low-income families (that is, those with an annual income of below $36,800 for a family of four). This proportion decreased from 1993 to 2000 but began to trend upward again in 2001 (Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, 2003). The United States continues to focus International Practices.indb 21 International Practices.indb 21 10/14/11 5:45 PM 10/14/11 5:45 PM 22 Mark P. Mostert on improving all support systems related to child welfare and in meeting contemporary challenges faced by those living below the poverty line and the often related concerns around single-parent families, child abuse, child trafficking, and other factors that increase the population at risk for school failure. Homelessness. The problem of homelessness in the United States has increased with declining economic growth and fewer work opportunities. Establishing accurate numbers is difficult, especially in rural areas (Fitchen, 1991). However, estimates are from 500,000 to more than 2 million. The little research that exists indicates that homeless children and youth are often marginalized and stigmatized, even though many of their problems are not of their own creation. Furthermore, homeless children are more likely to be referred to special education classes and to be labeled as intellectually disabled (ID), learning disabled (LD), or emotionally and behaviorally disturbed (EBD). Homeless children are also more likely to drop out of school by age 16 and appear more hyperactive and less attentive than their peers (Nord & Luloff, 1995). Immigration. The United States continues to be a nation of immigrants. The 2010 U.S. census notes that 20% of children either are immigrants or have immigrant parents, that 25% of immigrant children are classified as poor, and that 75% of immigrant children are U.S. citizens. Significantly, the proportion of immigrant children in the schools has more than doubled since 1980, as has the foreign-born population of the United States, half of whom were born in Latin America (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2011). Table 1. U.S. Population and Demographics Vector Breakdown Male Female Total Age structure 0–14 years: 20.2% 15–64 years: 67.0% ≥65 years: 12.8% (2010 est.) 31,639,127 202,665,043 16,901,232 30,305,704 1,031,293,212 2,571,696 310,232,863 (July 2010 est.) Median age 35.5 years 38.1 years (2010 est.) 36.8 years Literacy 99% 99...