Cognition, Education, and Deafness: Directions for Research and Instruction

Analysis

Analysis Robert Lee Williams The papers presented in part 4 all relate to the general area of the development of information processing in deaf children. They have interesting theoretical implications as well as practical applications, and in a sense they are all paeans to individual differences. Three of the papers deal specifically with the topic of field independence-dependence while the fourth investigates some of the possible perceptual precursors of language in children. Affolter's paper on the development of perceptual processes and problem-solving activities concerns some of the possible perceptual precursors of language development. In the general area of language precursors, at least four skill areas are necessary before children can begin learning and using language. First, a child must be able to represent things from memory. Second, there must be some degree of object permanence and, therefore, perceptual stability in the child's world, which enables the child to begin labeling things. Third, the child must also be able to use and understand the nature of tools. In a sense, words are tools; the fact that a high proportion of children's early speech acts are requests attests to this. The fourth precondition for language development is what Piaget (1951) referred to as the semiotic function-the ability to represent something that is not present. On a different level, Affolter has examined a constellation of perceptualmotor skills that appear to be learned with relative ease by both hearing and deaf children but not by language-disabled children. Previous crosssectional studies (Affolter, 1974) had seemed to indicate that these were prerequisites for language development. In this study, Affolter examined the relative development and performance of three groups of children: hearing impaired without any specific learning problems, hearing impaired with language problems, and hearing with learning and language problems. These children were tested on a variety of perceptual-motor tasks in longitudinal and cross-sectional designs. Results showed that while the language-disturbed group did not perform as well as the non-languagedisturbed group, the pattern of development did not seem to indicate that the perceptual-motor skills are prerequisites for language development. Rather, Affolter believes that it was these children's inability to interact effectively with their environment that limited their skills in both the development of complex perceptual-motor areas as well as language. This interaction with the environment was limited by the child's perceptual deficiencies as described in the paper. Further, in a somewhat revolutionary result, Affolter found that the pattern of development did not follow a strict stage process as is common in Piaget's theories, but rather was one, smooth, continuous developmental progression. Affolter's applications of her work are congruent with the ideas of Piaget and Feuerstein. Piaget suggested, and he has been supported in research by 59 Cognitive Styles and Problem-Solving Strategies Bower (1974), that equilibration is crucial to cognitive development. Equilibration was Piaget's concept of returning to a state of dynamic equilibrium. According to Piaget (Ginsburg & Opper, 1979), children develop cognitively through resolutions of conflicts. A conflict sets up a state of disequilibrium (disharmony) within the child's cognitive system and motivates him or her to attempt to restore the balance. The child moves to a higher level of cognitive functioning by restoring the system to a state of equilibrium. According to Piaget, two of the important characteristics of equilibration are the field of application (usually the perceptual field of the child) and the quality of perceptual mobility. That these are truly intrinsic to cognitive development is further supported by Affolter's research. As mentioned previously, this equilibration occurs only through interactions with the environment . Obviously language-disabled children have not been raised in "black boxes" all their lives; they have had interactions with the environment , but it is important to distinguish between the quantity of interaction and the quality of that interaction. Their perceptual deficiencies have reduced the usefulness and therefore the quality of their interactions. Affolter suggests that interactions must therefore be guided; although she is somewhat sketchy in her descriptions of the guided exploratory activities, they appear to be somewhat reminiscent of Feuerstein's Instrumental Enrichment program (1980). Instrumental Enrichment was designed to teach children problem-solving skills leading to more effective interactions with the environment. Affolter, however, as distinct from Feuerstein and Piaget, believes that "teaching. . . cognitive skills must be embedded in daily life activities" (1984, p. 31). She also emphasizes the importance of early identification of language-disabled children and early intervention programs. Obviously...