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1 Agriculture, State Expectations, and the Configuration of Citizenship
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1 agriculture, State expectations, and the Configuration of Citizenship Atfouro’clockonemorninginAugust1942,amereeightdaysafterthe Mexicangovernmentannounceditsintenttosupporttheworldwaragainst fascismbysendingmentoworkintheUnitedStates,hopefulmigrantscongregated inlinesthatwoundaroundtheMinistryofLaborbuilding.Onlysix thousandspotswereavailablefortheentirecountry,yetmorethantenthousand menconvergedonthecapital.1 Overthenexttwenty- twoyears,more than4.5millionworkcontractswereawardedinwhatonenewspapercalled an“importantexperimentinplannedmigration.”2 Whywouldsomanymen waithours,dayseven,forthechancetodostooplaborinU.S.fields?Why didtheMexicanandU.S.governments,whoserelationshiphadbeenstormy sincetheMexicanRevolution(1910–17),partnerinthisexperiment,allocating publicmoniesandresourcesforthismovementofmen?Whatdideach ofthesestateactorsexpecttogainfromsuchaninvestment?Itacklethese questionsinthischapter.Understandingtherationalebehindstateactions, togetherwiththegrowers’andmigrants’expectationsIexploreinthesubsequent twochapters,revealswhatwasatstakeintheprogramandhowit cametobeimaginedasanopportunity. Shifting Diplomatic relations NotlongaftertheUnitedStatesenteredWorldWarII,U.S.growerspredicted alaborshortageasmanyfarmhandsmarchedo≠towarorfound higher- payingjobsatmanufacturingplants.Californiagrowerswereespecially nervousthatascarcityofworkerswouldenergizeanewroundof unionorganizing,whichtheyhadfoughtsincetheearly1900s;theyhoped tosendagentssouthofthebordertorecruitfarmhands,astheyhadduring WorldWarI.Socialreformers,unionactivists,andfederalemployees Producing Transnational Subjects 22 oftheproworkerFarmSecurityAdministration(fsa)challengedgrowers’ gloomyassessment.Theyarguedthatthesupposedshortageresultedinstead fromamismatchbetweenwherejobswereconcentratedandwherelaborers werelocated,pointing,too,toinsu∞cientpayforthesejobs.Thiscontention wassupportedbyU.S.LaborSecretaryHenryWallace’sannouncementthat therewere1.6millionsurplusU.S.farmworkers.3 Yetasthousandsexited stooplaborjobs,thespecteroffoodshortagesandcropsrottinginthefields pushedU.S.o∞cialstoapproachtheirsoutherncounterpartsaboutthepossible importationoflaborers.4 Resistantatfirst,MexicanPresidentManuel ÁvilaCamacho(1940–46)agreedtonegotiateonceherealizedthepossibilities theprogramo≠ered.NotonlywouldbracerosbeMexico’scontribution totheware≠ort;theprogramalsoenabledhisadministrationtoreframethe independentnorthwardexodusofhundredsofmentoMexico’sdomestic anddiplomaticbenefit.Evenyearslater,MexicanSenatorPedrodeAlba wouldportraybraceros’contributionassustaining“moraleon[Mexico’s] homefront”anddeservingofits“gratitudeandthatofforeigners.”5 Ultimately,Mexicoallowedmenovertheageofeighteenjointheprogram. Thebilateralagreementguaranteedthatthosechosenwouldmeetphysical standardsforfarmwork,liveinsanitaryhousing,haveaccesstomedicalcare, havepaidroundtriptransportation(guaranteedunderMexicanlaw),andbe paidtheprevailingwageforthecroptheypicked(guaranteesnotaccordedto U.S.domesticfarmworkers).6 Furthermore,thesemencouldnotbeusedas strikebreakersortoinfluencelabordisputesinanyway.Negotiatorsrejected aU.S.proposaltoallowwivesandchildrentoaccompanymigranthusbands, fearingthatitwouldencouragepermanentemigration.WhileU.S.authorities wouldcontrolthenumberofcontracts,Mexicano∞cialsformulated domesticrequirements:menhadtohaveexperienceinagricultureandbe currentlyunemployed;7 membersoflandholdingcollectives(ejidos)were barred,althoughmanyfoundwaysaroundthisrestriction.8 Whenbureaucrats studiedtheissueinthelate1940s,theyconcludedthatduringtheearly phaseoftheprogram“approximately45percentofthosewholinedupto berecruited[already]hadwork”injobsthat“hadnothingtodowithagricultural activities.”9 Thispattern,evenstrongerina1950study,wouldcontradict thegovernment’santicipatedbenefits.10 Thoughmanywouldevade requirements,formalizingthesemeasuresenabledMexicanauthoritiesto juggledomesticneedsandconstraints — inparticular,toquelltheanticipated uproarfromplantationownersinnorthernMexico(hacendados)whoworried aboutlosingfieldhandstohigher- payingU.S.jobs.11 O...