The Furnace of Affliction: Prisons and Religion in Antebellum America

CHAPTER 2. The Furnace of Affliction, 1805–1823

47 2 The Furnace of Affliction, 1805–1823 In 1822 an evangelical press published Sword of Justice, Wielded by Mercy, an anonymous dialogue between Newgate prison inspectors and an inmate about to be released. Reflecting on the sentence he served and punishments he endured, the prisoner quotes from the book of Proverbs: “I experienced the truth of the declaration that ‘judgments are prepared for scorners, and stripes for the backs of fools.’” In response to the inmate’s reference to the whip, the inspectors explain that they found it “painful” to administer such severe sanctions. The convict assures them, however, that he understands their position, that stripes were “inflicted in mercy” and “designed for my good.” Acknowledging the inmate’s contrition, the inspectors offer “forgiveness of [his] trespasses.” Before venturing out into the city, the ex-convict replies: “I accept pardon as a gift from heaven.”1 This anonymous pamphlet reflects more than the missionary spirit of antebellum tract literature. It offers a particular point of view on New York’s controversial reintroduction of corporal punishment. It is one example of how partisans invoked religion to bolster their arguments about evolving prison discipline. The pamphlet writer speaks through a convict’s voice to assure the public that God redeemed inmates through incarceration featuring the whip. The piece was surely intended to persuade New Yorkers concerned about a variety of prison issues. Crime increased after the War of 1812. Newgate’s workshops remained unprofitable as staff struggled 48 The Furnace of Affliction to force inmates to work. Overcrowding prompted calls for a new prison design featuring more solitary confinement. As the pamphlet attests, the reintroduction of whipping also provoked considerable controversy. At this key moment of communal questioning, parties on all sides presented plans for effective prison discipline. They considered new possibilities for labor, space, and discipline to address the failures of Newgate’s early years. They debated labor’s purpose and how prison agents might create successful prison labor regimes in a tough economic climate. They reflected on spatial organization, especially as Newgate became increasingly overcrowded and inmates found themselves crammed together in common rooms. They pondered new disciplinary options, as current practices did not quell everyday acts of resistance and periodic riots and revolts. Even as citizens disagreed about labor, space, and discipline, they concurred that prisons must continue to have a redemptive purpose. Increasingly , New Yorkers used language about religion in order to win practical arguments about prison organization and score rhetorical points about the institution’s reformative potential. As Newgate’s discipline became more severe—especially when corporal punishment was reinstated—partisans appealed to religion to underwrite their approaches to inmates and institutional life. Whereas observers once invoked religion to abolish corporal punishment, they soon used it to defend its reinstatement. Newgate’s new chaplain played a particularly important role in this process by articulating a prison religion of suffering and redemption that could be interpreted as supporting inmate whipping. The chaplain replaced Thomas Eddy’s garden with a new and enduring model: the prison as furnace of affliction. Prison Troubles, City Troubles Life in Newgate remained chaotic after Thomas Eddy’s departure. When prisoners set fire to a workshop, communal labor came to a stop. Milder forms of inmate intransigence took place everyday, mainly in the form of work stoppage and workshop sabotage. The new slate of civil servants assigned to administer Newgate encountered an expanding criminal population that overwhelmed the prison’s physical space. Prison keepers found it nearly impossible to maintain silence in common rooms. Inmates, it seems, found myriad ways to resist the inspectors’ effort to establish strict discipline.2 Newgate’s problems reflected pressures felt by the entire city. After 1805, New York’s faltering economy left multitudes out of work. A yellow fever The Furnace of Affliction 49 epidemic killed many and devastated families left behind. The emerging slum called Five Points, just north of City Hall, proved a public embarrassment . The War of 1812 put further pressures on the community. After the conflict, the war’s unemployed veterans increased the number of residents seeking jobs and public aid. Impoverished immigrants entered the city at increasing rates. They competed against the free black population for the lowest-paying jobs. The expanding city government and a growing army of charity and mission workers tried to keep order in this difficult mix.3 The prison’s growing population reflected a city...