The Kyoto School: An Introduction

Introduction

Introduction For nearly two and a half centuries (1633–1853), Japan was shut off from the rest of the world. Sakoku (“locked or chained coun‑ try”) was the foreign relations policy of Japan that allowed no foreigner to enter Japan, nor any Japanese to leave the country, except on penalty of death. It remained unlawful for a Japanese to leave Japan until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. While limited trading was allowed with a very few countries at five main ports, during more than two centuries the vast majority of Japanese never even caught a glimpse of a non‑Japanese. “Dutch learning” was a term to describe the few books and limited information gained from Dutch traders who were allowed to use Dejima, an artificial island port (measuring 600 x 240 feet) just outside Nagasaki, but such information was anything but widely disseminated. In fact, a small stone footbridge was all that connected Dejima to Nagasaki, an entrance that was always heavily guarded. For all intents and purposes, Japan was closed to the entire world and, for the most part, unaware of any of the industrial and technological advances made elsewhere. The Japan that existed before 1853 was a feudal society, with warlords controlling specific regions, where “vassals” were required to show submission in the form of payments and loyalty. The pre‑contact Japanese worldview was an eclectic mix of Confu‑ cian, indigenous Shintō, and Buddhist values. Japan had shunned European technological advances from the 1600s onward, if they were even aware of them, and remained unindustrialized to any significant extent. From the perspective of European and American officials, Japan was a “primitive” country, believing in nature spirits, religious magic, and the adequacy of the sword as protection. 1 2 / The Kyoto School In 1853, the United States forced the opening of Japan to “free trade” at gunpoint, when the four “black ships,” armed with cannons, made it clear that the Japanese sword was all but use‑ less against foreign armaments. The warships Mississippi, Plymouth, Saratoga, and Susquehanna steamed into Tokyo Bay, known then as the Bay of Edo, under Commander Matthew Perry of the U.S. Navy. Brandishing weapons, Perry made clear the United States would not take “no” for an answer. Wintering in the Ryukyu Islands, Perry returned a few months later with seven ships, essen‑ tially forcing the signing of the “Treaty of Peace and Amity,” thereby establishing diplomatic relations between the United States and Japan. Treaties were soon signed with other countries as well (England, Russia, Holland), but in each case the Japanese felt that these treaties were unfair and unequal, granting “favored nation status” at gunpoint while giving Japan considerably less in return. Western nations assumed control of tariffs on imports, and all vis‑ iting nationals were granted the right of extraterritoriality. Given that it was a time of rampant Western imperialism, Japan soon knew enough to fear that Western nations sought more than trad‑ ing and visitation rights. Militarily, Japan could do nothing to defend itself against the superior power of its new treaty “partners.” Nevertheless, among the rank and file the cry was “expel the barbarians,” and not long after, “honor the emperor—expel the barbarians.” However, the Tokugawa Shōgunate, which had been in power for 250 years, realized that they must submit to the unreasonable demands of the United States and other Western nations. Over the past hundreds of years, the emperor had been all but forgotten by the Japanese in favor of the Shōgun, but now that the power of the Tokugawa Shōgunate was crumbling, the emperor summoned the Shōgun to Kyoto and the Shōgun immediately complied. This “imperial” show of muscle was important given that the new government of 1868 would place the emperor at the forefront of Japanese minds, even though political power would actually lie elsewhere. It was in 1867 that the Tokugawa Lord of Mito voluntarily gave over the actual political rule of Japan to the emperor. After Introduction / 3 centuries of feudal rule, the Shōgun collectively gave over all power, and all of this occurred virtually bloodlessly. It had become clear to all that reform was necessary. The “Restoration” of imperial rule was now a fact, even though the emperor himself was but a boy of fifteen. Among those who advised the young emperor was a group of young and very poor samurai who actually wielded political power...