Dubious Facts: The Evidence of Early Chinese Historiography

CHAPTER EIGHT Moral Norms as Facts

111 CHAPTER EIGHT Moral Norms as Facts Arguing before the Emperor R HETOR ICA L INTER PL AY IN A H A N DEBATE Though the moral voice becomes more prominent in Han addresses, the format of the use of nonmoral strategic concerns is still quite similar to their use in the persuasions of the Intrigues. Relating to nonmoral strategic concerns we thus can naturally draw sympathetic comparisons in our analysis of the early Han addresses and exchanges to the opposed addresses presented by Su Qin and Zhang Yi to the king of Wei discussed in Chapter Six. An early Han example that shows certain similarities to the exchange between Su Qin and Zhang Yi is the exchange between Grand Messenger Wang Hui and Imperial Counselor Han Anguo (an exchange that is notably absent in Sima Qian’s account)1 in response to a query put by Emperor Wu. The exchange is also published in a collection of anecdotes and tales entitled Xinxu 新序, or New Arrangements, which Liu Xiang, the reputed editor of the Intrigues, also allegedly either collected or edited. Numerous disparities exist between the History of the Former Han and Xinxu renditions of the exchange, but, in most cases, they do not alter the overarching thrust of each discussant’s remark. Often they seem merely to be extending or curtailing the elaboration of a particular point. Indeed, there appears to be so much overlap that Yang Shuda, in his commentary to the History of the Former Han, asserts without comment that Ban Gu probably took the exchange from the Xinxu.2 Whether or not this is the case, because of their overwhelming similarity, and thus their common ancestry, I have altered or amended the text appearing in the History of the Former Han only when its sibling offers a somewhat illuminating alternative or addition.3 I do not, as Yang seems to, presume that the Xinxu version is primary. 112 Dubious Facts First, some historical context for the issues involved and positions forwarded in the debate: One of the central problems almost every early Chinese ruler was forced to handle was the constant incursions by foreign non-Chinese tribes on the borders of the empire, particularly the northern and western borders. Being nomadic, these tribes were difficult to contain and subjugate militarily; indeed, in spite of the actions Chinese rulers took to control them, the northern steppe tribes grew in size and influence. In 209 BCE, around the very end of the Qin dynasty, the most powerful of the tribes, the Xiongnu, conquered or made alliances with numerous other foreign tribes and established a formal empire. The Xiongnu empire, emerging under the leadership of Maodun 冒頓, forced the nascent Han Chinese empire to accept the northern steppe peoples as a vigorous military presence. The debate between Wang Hui and Han Anguo was conducted before the preeminent military emperor of the early Han period, Emperor Wu. His campaigns into the steppes not only destroyed the unity of the steppe tribes but also extended Han influence deep into Central Asia, a feat that was not to be repeated until centuries later at the beginning of the Tang dynasty under Emperor Taizong. In his dealings with Maodun, Emperor Wu initially pursued a policy of peaceful negotiations (heqin 和 親), in which the Han court was obliged to submit annual tribute to the Xiongnu and, when the Xiongnu leader (the Chanyu 單于) came of age, to send a Chinese princess in marriage. But because the Xiongnu were perceived as routinely breaking agreements and terrorizing the frontier areas, Emperor Wu was soon predisposed to discontinue such an arrangement. In line with the common manner in the Han histories and the Intrigues of introducing addresses or debates about state affairs, the text begins with the introduction of the narrative particulars that will inform the discussion. As with the prefatory remarks preceding Xiao Wangzhi’s address regarding the necessary response to the recent incursions of the Xiongnu that was discussed in Chapter Five,4 we find the simple format of the year of the discussion, the problematic, and the executive’s request for counsel, with the slight distinction here being the emperor asking a specific question and expressing a predilection for military engagement rather than merely asking for counsel. In the remainder of the discussion, he offers no further remarks or queries. The two participants, Wang Hui 王恢 and Han Anguo 韓安國, like Su Qin and Zhang Yi, adopt starkly opposed stances regarding military engagement, with Wang Hui...