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notes Introduction Epigraph. Theodor D. Sterling and Seymour V. Pollack, Computers and the Life Sciences (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), 1. Sterling and Pollack conceded that from the perspective of 1965, robotized science was only in its nascence: “We are still at a very early state of creation. If computers are to be compared in status with other artifacts, they might be called the Model T’s or the Flying Jennies of robots.” 1. CNN Transcript, President Bill Clinton, British Prime Minister Tony Blair Deliver Remarks on Human Genome Milestone, June 26, 2000, http://transcripts.cnn.com/ TRANSCRIPTS/0006/26/bn.01.html, accessed Jan. 12, 2011. 2. US Department of Energy, “Human Genome Project Budget,” www.ornl.gov/sci/ techresources/Human_Genome/project/budget.shtml, accessed Jan. 12, 2011. 3. The 1980s and 1990s also saw advances in sequencing technology, such as Leroy Hood’s automatic DNA Sequencer, which greatly facilitated the HGP. 4. Genome News Network (J. Craig Venter Institute), “Genetics and Genomics Timeline,” www.genomenewsnetwork.org/resources/timeline/2000_human.php, accessed Jan. 12, 2011. 5. Kaushik Sunder Rajan makes explicit the causes and immediate effects of some of the forces that brought about the NASDAQ bubble in Biocapital (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006). James Shreeve, meanwhile, brings to light the personal motivations driving the exuberance related to biotechnology in the 1990s in his journalistic account of Celera’s history, The Genome War: How Craig Venter Tried to Capture the Code of Life and Save the World (New York: Ballantine Books, 2005). 6. Richard Dawkins, “Genetics: Why Prince Charles Is So Wrong,” The Times (London ), Jan. 28, 2003. The article’s subheading reads: “Genes work just like computer software , says this writer—which is why the luddites don’t get it, but their children probably will.” 7. Christopher Vaughan, Incyte Genomics “Featured Scientist” interview: “Leroy Hood: Inside Genomics,” http://wayback.archive.org/web/*/http://www.incyte.com/ insidegenomics/int/int/int_int_0011/int_int_0011_18.shtml, accessed July 13, 2011. 8. Joris Evers, “Two Words from Bill Gates: Computer Science,” PC World, October 2004, www.pcworld.com/article/118029/two_words_from_bill_gates_computer_ science.html, accessed Jan. 12, 2011. 9. Ashlee Vance, “Merely Human? That’s So Yesterday,” New York Times, June 12, 2010. 278 Notes to Pages 4–12 10. NIH Acting Director Raynard S. Kington, quoted in “NIH Announces American Recovery and Reinvestment Act Funding Opportunities” Mar. 11, 2009, News Release, www.nih.gov/news/health/mar2009/ncrr-11.htm, accessed Jan. 12, 2011. 11. NIH Research Portfolio Online Reporting Tools (RePORT) database, http:// report.nih.gov/, accessed Dec. 21, 2010. 12. Francis S. Collins, “Statement for hearing entitled, “NIH in the 21st Century: The Director’s Perspective,” Testimony before the Subcommittee on Health Committee on Energy and Commerce, United States House of Representatives, June 15, 2010. 13. Andrew Pollack, “Awaiting the Genome Payoff,” New York Times, June 14, 2010. 14. Merck has been particularly aggressive in drawing attention to its investment in IT. Kevin Davies, “Merck’s Informatics Mission,” Bio-IT World, May 8, 2008, www .bio-itworld.com/issues/2008/may/cover-story-merck-informatics.html, accessed Jan. 12, 2011. 15. Barack Obama, Remarks by the President to a Joint Session of Congress on Health Care, Sept. 9, 2009, US Capitol, Washington, DC. 16. David Leonhardt, “Making Health Care Better,” New York Times Magazine, Nov. 3, 2009. 17. Stefan Timmermans and Marc Berg, The Gold Standard: The Challenge of EvidenceBased Medicine and Standardization in Health Care (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2003), 19. 18. Jerome Groopman, “Diagnosis: What Doctors Are Missing,” New York Review of Books 56, no. 17 (Nov. 5, 2009). 19. A widely read recent example is Megan McArdle, “Paging Dr. Luddite: Information Technology Is on the Brink of Revolutionizing Health Care—If Physicians Will Only Let It,” Atlantic Monthly, December 2010. 20. Vannevar Bush, “As We May Think,” Atlantic Monthly 176, no. 1 (July 1945): 101. 21. Joshua Lederberg, “Computers and the Life Sciences,” Science 150 (1965): 1577. 22. Michael S. Mahoney, “The Histories of Computing(s),” Interdisciplinary Science Reviews 30, no. 2 (2005): 119. 23. Explicitly cybernetic research received little funding, with the great exception being the work led by Heinz von Foerster at UIUC. His singular career and work is discussed in detail in Albert Müller and Karl H. Müller, ed., An Unfinished Revolution? Heinz von Foerster and the Biological Computer Laboratory (BCL) 1958–1976 (Vienna: Edition Echoraum, 2007). 24. Subjects of this book Wesley Clark, Charles Molnar, J. C. R. Licklider, and...

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