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Women and the Russian Military, 1650-1730: A Preliminary Survey Carol B. Stevens "Soldiers alone do not make an army.,,1 As military historians have long acknowledged, there is far more to an army than the combatants themselves; logistics, training, finances, propaganda, and recruitment are among the many topics that have received specialized study. A field that remains somewhat less well studied is that of women and war, even though, during the early m odern period in Eu rope, and perhaps elsewhere, "at no time were so many women engaged in warfare.',2 This engagement included a particularly broad variety of occupations and activities, and it provides a glimpse, albeit fleeting, into the lives of women at a time when their voices are rarely heard outside of elite circles. In the early m odern era, women's involvement in military life was largely informal and supportive; nonetheless, it had an important, indirect relationship to the military establishments of a variety of European countries. To explain: As a prolific school of historiography testifies, the role of governments in controlling and appropriating social violence, and then in raising, fielding, and supporting armies and navies, underwent significant changes between the 15th and 18th centuries. By the late 19th century, most European states mustered armies and navies staffed largely by their nationals. These armies and navies were military establishments supported by complex public systems of finance, recruitment, food, and military supply. There was every expectation, politically and socially, that governments were responsible for the creation and maintenance of such military systems. In preceding centuries , however, few of these statements would have been true. First of all, violence and the use of force had not been exclusively harnessed to governmental entities. Fu rther, many Eu ropean armies and navies relied upon the semiprivate recruitment of combatants such as mercenaries and privateers. 1 Holly A. Mayer, Belonging to the Army (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1996), l. My thanks to Philip Uninsky, as always, for his editorial comments and to Brian Davies for his recommendations. 2 Brian Crim, "Silent Partners: Women and Warfare in Early Modem Europe," in A Soldier and A Woman: Sexual lllteraction in the Military, ed. Gerard J. De Groot and Corinna Peniston-Bird (New York: Pearson Education, 2000), 27, with specific reference to the period 1500-1650. Rude & Barbarous Kingdom Revisited: Essays in Russian History and Culture in Honor of Robert 0. Crummey. Chester 5. L. Dunning, Russell E. Martin, and Danie l Rowland, eds. Bloomington, IN: s iavica Publi shers, 2008, 473- 90. 474 CAROL B. STEVENS Perhaps even more noticeably, military support systems were not the exclusive province of government. Off the field of battle, taxes were collected by tax farmers; provisions were mustered by contractors and requisitioned by combatants themselves, and so on. Closer to the troops themselves, military support systems were also sustained by impromptu and unacknowledged, as well as quasi-governmental, actors. Sutlers, gunsmiths, military advisors, laundresses, nurses, cooks, prostitutes, tailors, local foragers, and many others supported the daily rounds of military men on and off the battlefield. As many as half of the non-combatants that followed an army could be women. 3 Many had personal connections to the troops as well as working for and with them. Military families contributed not only labor, but a sense of community vital to the combatants' well-being and military abilities. In these and other ways, then, women in the early modern period played a critical role in sustaining European troops on and off the battlefield; their private actions helped sustain rudimentary and developing military support systems and in many respects made possible the functioning of early modern armies and navies. Although such contributions were sometimes vital, military establishments reacted to informal support in a variety of ways, attempting with mixed success to acknowledge, transform, control, or even ban it4 Russian armies of the early modern period differed in a variety of ways from their counterparts further west. They had larger proportions of cavalry, for example, and in the 17th century many troops served for a single season or campaign at a time. 5 Despite such differences, one is prompted to wonder about Russian equivalents to the informal, private, or semi-official military support systems that were so important further west. Some elements of this question, such as the recruitment and role of mercenaries in the 17th-century army, have received some research attention6 However, there has been little 3 Barton C. Hacker and Margaret Vining, "The World...

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