Studies in Outdoor Recreation: Search and Research for Satisfaction

7. Motivations and Benefits in Outdoor Recreation A Behavioral Approach

166 7 Motivations and Benefits in Outdoor Recreation A Behavioral Approach Early Explorations Early empirical research in outdoor recreation, as in all emerging areas of study, was primarily descriptive, focusing on the activities and socioeconomic and cultural characteristics of users, and their attitudes and preferences about management. But even as this descriptive foundation of information was being built, there were early signs of a deeper, more analytical interest, specifically the question of why people participate in outdoor recreation. Illustrative of this early interest in motivations for outdoor recreation was a study of fishing in the Quetico-Superior Area, Minnesota (Bultena and Taves 1961). Observing that fishers returning to camp with empty creels were not necessarily dissatisfied with their experience, the authors hypothesized that there must be multiple motives involved in outdoor recreation. Tentative support for this hypothesis was found in an exploratory element of this study, which asked visitors to the area to rate the importance of seventeen potential motivations for their visits. While many visitors were certainly interested in catching fish, many also reported that they thought of their trips as a means of escaping familiar routines and the cares associated with living in an urbanized society, along with other diverse motivations. An analogous study of hunting proposed a “multiple satisfactions approach,” expanding measures of satisfaction from the traditional count of game bagged (Hendee 1974). Early studies of camping and wilderness were also suggestive of multiple motivations (Stone and Traves 1958, Wildland Research Center 1962, LaPage 1967, Catton 1969, E. Shafer and Mietz 1969). Twomoreconceptuallybasedstudieswerealsoconductedduringthisearlyperiod (Burch 1965, 1969). Both focused on camping activity in the Pacific Northwest. The MOTIVATIONS AND BENEFITS IN OUTDOOR RECREATION 167 first identified six types of play activity symbolic of the various meanings ascribed to camping. The second tested two conventional theories of leisure behavior: the compensatory theory, suggesting that leisure activities are selected to be opposite to and give relief from routine activities; and the familiarity theory, suggesting that leisure activities are selected to be in conformance with routine activities to avoid feelings of uncertainty. Little support was found for either theory. In a rudimentary sense, studies of recreation and leisure have been suggestive of multiple motivations for several decades. Several classical theories, including compensation and familiarity, noted above, were postulated in the 1950s and 1960s to explain general leisure behavior. They included surplus energy (leisure activity burns off excess energy or vitality), relaxation (leisure activity provides respite from intense work or living functions), and catharsis (leisure activity allows purging of emotional tension or anxiety). Several early texts provide standard treatments of this work (Neumeyer and Neumeyer 1949, Larrabee and Meyersohn 1958, Brightbill 1960, Kaplan 1960, deGrazia 1962). This chapter examines theoretical and empirical research on motivations and benefits associated with outdoor recreation. This research suggests what is sometimes called a “behavioral approach” to recreation, emphasizing why people participate in outdoorrecreationactivitiesandthepotentialbenefitsgainedfromsuchparticipation. Several conceptual and methodological issues are identified and discussed. A Behavioral Approach to Recreation Beginning in the early 1970s, Driver and associates began building a conceptual foundation for the study of motivations in outdoor recreation (Driver and Toucher 1970, Driver 1975, Driver and P. Brown 1975, Driver 1976, Driver and Bassett 1977, Driver and P. Brown 1978, Haas et al. 1980a, Driver and Rosenthal 1982, Driver 1985, Schreyer and Driver 1989).1 Empirical approaches to testing these concepts were also developed and have received wide application. The conceptual foundation ofthisworkbeganwithafundamentallookatthenatureofrecreation,notingthatthe traditional view of recreation is based on activities—fishing, swimming, camping, etc. (Driver and Toucher 1970). While this activity approach has been useful for a variety of descriptive purposes, it leaves unaddressed a number of potentially important issues: Why is the recreationist participating in the activity? What other activities might have been selected if the opportunities existed? What satisfactions or rewards are received from the activity? How can the quality of the experience be enhanced? (Driver and Toucher 1970:10). 168 STUDIES IN OUTDOOR RECREATION To better answer these questions, these researchers proposed a “behavioral approach” defining recreation as “an experience that results from recreational engagements.” This approach is based on psychological theory, which suggests that most human behavior is goal oriented or aimed at some need or satisfaction (Crandall 1980). Perhaps the most widely recognized expression of this theory is Maslow’s (1943) hierarchy of human needs, beginning with the most basic requirements for physiological sustenance and ranging through more aesthetic concerns. The work of Driver and associates is...