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92 CHAPTER 2 The Evolution of Formal Theology Muslims developed a grand theological tradition that was deeply influenced by Greek philosophy and Christian theology, and which in turn profoundly influenced Jewish and later Christian thinking. The motivation for working out complex theological systems emerged from differences between various human perceptions of the meaning of God and His role in the universe. The differences arose not only by way of disputes between Muslims and other monotheists about the meaning of God in the broadest sense, but also by way of arguments among Muslims. In some cases of internal Muslim disputes, proponents of one view or another were able to convinceleadersofstatetosupportthem ,whichultimatelyresultedininquisitions and even executions of those insisting on taking what became politically the wrong theological positions. The tide turned back and forth on sometimes subtle issues when one or another faction succeeded in convincing the caliph to enforce their own belief. Eventually compromises were reached and certain acceptable views were recognized. A historical synopsis of some of the main theological developments follows. Kalām Theology in Islam is often rendered as the word “kalām,” which means “speech” or “discourse.” `Ilm al-kalām is the “science of theology,” though often it appears simply as kalām. Those engaged in this project are called mutakallimūn. As is often the case in the development of religious precepts, 93 C H A P T E R 1 2 crises initiate the need to come to terms systematically with a significant issue . In the case of early Islam, the issue was whether or not a Muslim who had committed a grave sin remains a Muslim. If it were simply a case of anonymous individuals, the problem would not have become a crisis. But the individual in question happened to have been the caliph. We recall that a faction that had supported Ali for the caliphate had broken off and fought against him. These were the Kharijites, who rebelled against Ali for agreeing to arbitration rather than submitting entirely to God’s will by insisting on his position as caliph. Prior to their rebellion against Ali, they had opposed Ali’s contender, Mu`āwiya, because Mu`āwiya had revolted against the authority of Ali as successor to the Prophet. According to the Kharijite position, a Muslim must be totally committed to observe God’s will. There can be no compromise, so that a Muslim is a “true believer” only if he is thoroughly observant. If not, then that person is simply not a Muslim. When Mu`āwiya refused to acknowledge the properly selected caliph, he proved himself an infidel and apostate. But Ali too, because he agreed to arbitrate with Mu`āwiya over the caliphate, invalidated his own Muslim identity when he failed to insist decisively on his divine authority to rule. That act not only invalidated his candidacy as caliph but revealed that he too was an apostate (whether he agreed with that assessment or not). Both were thus renegades. According to the Kharijites, their respective sins rendered them illegitimate rulers, against whom jihad was a religious requirement (a position derived from Q.9:2). Most Muslims did not take this view, of course. It was a dangerously destabilizing position, because virtually anyone could declare a leader to be an infidel or apostate, if he carried out a policy that might seem to them “unIslamic .” A counterposition was proffered by a group called the Murji’ites (murji’a, “those who defer” judgment). They taught that while a person may or may not appear to be a pious Muslim, only God can truly make that judgment. All Muslims must therefore take the default position of considering all other Muslims to be faithful believers. A final verdict awaits the final judgment. This theology allowed caliphs to rule even if they were not absolutely righteous individuals . It also brought a certain level of peace between Muslim factions and a tolerance toward those converts who might appear to be less than totally committed in their observance. The Murji’ite position came to dominate that of the Kharijites, but eventually it fell out of favor when Murji’ites extended the logic to claim that no Muslim would enter hell, since traditional Sunni belief (supported by the Qur’an) has it that some Muslims will enter hell temporarily, after which they will be purified and enter into heaven. The Murji’ites validated Umayyad rule for Sunni Islam despite the general acknowledgment that the Umayyad caliphs were less than fully...

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