Jewish Traditions: A JPS Guide

Overview

Overview Food plays a major role in the daily life of Jews as well as in their celebration of festive occasions (see p. 157). During the biblical period, the Mediterranean diet generally consisted of grains, such as wheat (see p. 669) and barley (see p. 669), and legumes, such as lentils (see p. 686) and fava beans, which were cultivated in permanent settlements. Most vegetables were picked wild when needed and cooked for the daily meal. Grapes, figs, and dates (see p. 670, 671, and 673, respectively) were consumed fresh or dried. Almonds (see p. 674), walnuts, and pistachios were popular nuts. Olives (see p. 672) were a major source of oil and were also preserved. The eating of meat, primarily mutton and goat raised by nomads, was almost always limited to festive occasions. Milk (see p. 688) was consumed fresh and in the form of butter, cheese, and sour milk (leben). Wines (sweet, sparkling, or spiced) were made from grapes as well as from raisins, fermented dates, figs, and pomegranates. Wine vinegar was used for pickling and as a dressing. The most common seasoning was salt (see p. 689), which was used to enhance virtually every food as well as to accompany all sacrifices. Herbs and spices (used as flavoring, for medicinal purposes, and as incense) included coriander, cumin, pepper, ginger (imported from Arabia and India), fenugreek, dill, sesame seeds, and fennel.1 When speaking of the abundance of the Land of Israel, the Bible mentions three general types of food—dagan (grain), tirosh ([new] wine), and yizhar (oil)—the prime products of the Israelite agriculture (Deut. 7:13; 2 Kings 18:32). The Torah prohibited the consumption of certain foods. An animal fit for eating must chew its cud and have split hooves; a fish must have fins and scales. The Torah explicitly lists which birds are forbidden. In addition, animals and birds (but not fish) can be eaten only if they are slaughtered in a ritually precise manner. The consumption of blood is 655 also prohibited. Food that accords with the Jewish dietary laws came to be known as “kosher” (kasher), which literally means “fit” or “appropriate ,” though this word is never used in the Torah to describe food. Dietary Laws (Kashrut; tVrDk<-) According to the dietary laws, all fruits and vegetables are permitted, based on the verse, “See, I give you every seed-bearing plant that is upon all the earth, and every tree that has seed-bearing fruit; they shall be yours for food” (Gen. 1:29). In fact, this verse and the subsequent one imply that vegetarianism was the earliest biblical ideal. Only in the 656 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions CHARACTERISTICS OF JEWISH COOKING The two main categories of Jewish cooking may be broadly classified as Sephardic (originating from around the Mediterranean in the Middle East and North Africa and extending to Asia) and Ashkenazic (of more Western and Northern European origin). A major dividing line was the mountains separating the north and south of Europe, extending from the Caucasus to the Pyrenees. Over the centuries, the significant Jewish migrations between east and west, rather than north and south, accentuated the differences between Sephardim (who for years tended to live a more cosmopolitan life under Islamic rule) and Ashkenazim (who had a more rural existence and suffered frequent persecutions under Christian domination ). The differences in the two styles of cooking are closely related to the climate, soil, and locally available produce. In general, Ashkenazim inhabit a cold world of beef and bland vegetables (cabbage , carrots, potatoes), freshwater fish (especially carp), and salt herring, in which the flavor is brought out by fats, sugar, and onions. In contrast, the world of the Sephardim “is a warm one of peppers and eggplant, zucchini and tomatoes” and features a “sensual, aromatic , and colorful” cuisine that focuses on herbs and spices, olive oil, rice, cracked wheat, beans, lamb, and saltwater fish.1 time of Noah did God allow humans to be carnivorous (Gen. 9:3). God did give Noah one restriction—the consumption of blood was prohibited —but the full set of dietary laws was commanded to the Israelites after they left Egypt, and was further embellished and explicated by the Rabbis. The Jewish dietary laws (derived largely from Lev. 11:1–43) detail which animals, birds, and fish may be eaten; how they are to be slaughtered and prepared; and the rules concerning the separation of meat and milk. Quadrupeds The Bible divides the “beasts of the earth” into those animals that are permitted for consumption (tahor; clean) and those that are prohibited (tamei; unclean). This is based on God’s command that Noah take seven pairs of every clean beast and two pairs of all unclean animals into the ark (Gen. 7:2), a difference that presumably related to the former group being suitable for sacrifice. To qualify as kosher, a quadruped must both chew the cud (ruminant ) and have completely cloven (divided) hooves (Lev. 11:3; Deut. 14:6), meaning that they cannot hold prey and thus are not carnivores. The Torah specifies 10 herbivorous animals (wild and domestic) that meet these criteria: ox, sheep (see p. 729), goat (see p. 718), deer, gazelle (see p. 714), roebuck, wild goat, ibex, antelope, and mountain sheep (Deut. 14:4–5). The camel (see p. 711), hare (see p. 719), and hyrax chew their cud but are forbidden because they have incompletely split hooves; the pig (see p. 726) has a completely cloven hoof but is prohibited because it does not chew its cud (Deut. 14:7–8). Birds Although kosher quadrupeds and fish are mentioned by characteristics so that their identities are clear, the Torah specifically names 20 nonkosher species of birds, thus implying that all others are kosher (Lev. 11:13–19; Deut 14:11–18). The forbidden birds include osprey, kite, vulture , raven, falcon, and hawk. Unfortunately, over time the precise identities of some of the biblically prohibited birds became unclear. Consequently, the Shulchan Arukh ruled that it is forbidden to eat any species of bird (or its eggs; see p. 707) unless there is a well-established Dietary Laws 657 tradition that it is kosher (YD 82:2).1 These include chicken, capon, Cornish hen, domestic duck and goose, pigeon, partridge, and peacock . In general, all birds of prey and scavengers that eat carrion are prohibited (Hul. 59a). According to Nachmanides, all unclean birds are in some degree cruel, so that one who eats their flesh becomes exposed to the danger of acquiring the same characteristic.2 The Mishnah states, “Every bird that has an extra toe [talon], a crop [pouched enlargement of the gullet that stores food], and a gizzard that can be peeled [inner lining that can easily be separated from the outside muscular portion] is clean” (Hul. 3:6; 59a). Nevertheless, in regard to certain birds, such as pheasant, quail, and even turkey, there is a difference of tradition, with some communities regarding them as permitted and others deeming them forbidden. The Rabbis discussed whether the white stork (hasidah) was a kosher bird. According to the Talmud, its Hebrew name (lit., “pious bird”) reflects that “it shows kindness [hasidut] to its companions [i.e., by sharing food with other members of its species]” (Hul. 63a). Nevertheless, the white stork is still considered a nonkosher bird because it shows such compassion only toward its own kind and not to other species, a behavior that was scorned by the sages.3 Fish Of “all that live in water,” only those that have fins (snapir) and scales (kaskeset) are “clean” and permitted as food (Lev. 11:9–12). The scales must be capable of being scraped off easily with a knife (Nachmanides ), which excludes creatures with scales that are not clearly defined, such as shellfish, shark, catfish, and amphibians.4 Nachmanides explained that fish with fins and scales can swim close to the surface, so that occasionally they come up for air. This warms their blood and enables them to rid their bodies of excess fluids and other impurities. In contrast, those lacking fins and scales keep close to the bottom of the sea, cannot purify their bodies, and thus would be harmful to human health if eaten.5 Jews are also forbidden to eat from “among all the swarming things of the water and among all the other living creatures that are in the water” (Lev. 11:10); this prohibits small aquatic creatures and large water animals that are not fish (such as seals, dolphins, sharks, and 658 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions whales).6 A major controversy concerns the status of swordfish, which has scales when young but then loses them as it gets older. Swordfish is permitted by the American Conservative movement but forbidden by most Orthodox authorities. Insects The Torah specifically permits the eating of four kinds of locusts (see p. 722; Lev. 11:21–22), but because none can be unequivocally identified, later rabbis declared all species of insects to be forbidden. The prohibition against “all winged swarming things” (Deut. 14:19) includes flies, bees (see p. 710), hornets, and similar insects. An exception is the product of an insect that is not part of its body, such as honey from bees (Bek. 7b). Unlike milk from a cow, honey is a product of the flower nectar that bees gather and then convert into honey. The ban on “all the things that swarm upon the earth” (Lev. 11:41) forbids the eating of worms, beetles, snakes, scorpions, and lizards, which Rashi defined as being low, having short legs, and appearing to creep along the ground.7 Shechitah (he=yc1D4) The law of ritual slaughtering is derived from the verse, “you may slaughter any of the cattle or sheep ... as I have instructed you” (Deut. 12:21). The Rabbis interpreted this to imply that Moses had previously taught the people a method of slaughtering animals. However, since the precise details are not mentioned in the Torah, it follows that the Jewish method of ritual slaughter must have been communicated as part of the Oral Law. Today, the complex and minute regulations dealing with ritual slaughtering must be carried out by a licensed shochet, who in addition to being a skilled professional must be a pious individual who is well trained in Jewish law. Jewish ritual slaughtering strives to prevent unnecessary suffering to the animal. It requires one continuous deep horizontal cut with a perfectly sharp blade with no nicks or unevenness. This severs the windpipe and all of the great blood vessels of the neck so that the animal instantly loses all sensation. Because an animal may not be eaten if it has not been properly slaughtered, the technical requirements must be strictly observed. Dietary Laws 659 In addition to slaughtering the animal, the shochet must also carry out a detailed examination (bedikah) of the carcass. Any defect of the major organs renders the animal treif and forbidden for consumption. Initially referring to the flesh of an animal torn by a wild beast or wild bird, the word “terefah” was later applied to the flesh of any injured or diseased animal that would not have lived for more than a year (Hul. 3:1). Eventually, treif became the generic term for any product that was not kosher, and thus not ritually fit for Jewish consumption. The halakhah permits certain abnormalities in the lungs that have been determined to be harmless. However, those Jews who are strictest in their observance of kashrut eat only glatt kosher meat—a term that is derived from the Yiddish word for “smooth” and refers to animals with smooth, lesion-free lungs.8 Shechitah and bedikah of poultry are carried out in the same careful manner, though only the intestines are examined. There are no specific regulations about how fish are to be killed. After shechitah, the animal is suspended head down to drain as much blood as possible from the body (see below). Jewish law prohibits eating the flesh of any kosher animal that has died without kosher slaughter. Termed “nevelah,” this includes not only an animal that died a natural death but also one that has been killed by hunting or was not correctly slaughtered. Unlike the nonkosher creatures that the Torah terms “abomination,” nevelah is permitted to gentiles ; according to Sforno,9 it is forbidden to Jews only because it is not appropriate food for a holy people.10 Although Abravanel11 deemed nevelah to be reprehensible to God because it was a pagan custom to eat of this particular kind of meat,12 Rabbi Meir13 stated that the owner of the carcass had the right to benefit from it by selling it to a gentile, even though it could not be eaten by a Jew (Pes. 21b).14 Preparation of Meat (Kashering) The unequivocal biblical prohibition against the consumption of blood is the basis for the process of kashering meat (Lev. 7:26–27, 17:10–14). This is the only dietary law for which the Torah provides a reason: “For the life of the flesh is in the blood, and I have assigned it to you for making expiation for your lives upon the altar.” Therefore, before meat is cooked, it is necessary to remove all traces of blood—by soaking and salting the meat or by broiling or roasting it over an open flame. 660 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions After being washed to remove all externally visible blood, the meat is placed in a large container and covered completely in lukewarm water for a half hour so that it softens and will absorb salt. The meat is then placed on a flat slatted board through which blood can drip or on a sloped board so that the blood can drain off into a sink or empty container . It is salted thoroughly on all sides and left on the board for one hour. Coarse (kosher) salt is used because of its effectiveness in drawing out the blood from the meat. After being rinsed off several times, the meat is considered in proper condition for cooking. This entire process must be completed within 72 hours after ritual slaughter; otherwise , the blood is considered to have congealed inside the meat, which must them be broiled or roasted over an open flame before it can be eaten.15 Meat that is to be broiled does not need to be kashered, since the broiling process drains off at least as much blood as is removed by soaking and salting. Nevertheless, some people still sprinkle salt on meat before broiling. Salting is not considered effective enough to kasher the blood-saturated liver, which must first be broiled on a rack to allow the juices to drain before being further cooked in whatever way desired.16 Forbidden Portions of Kosher Animals The sciatic nerve and its associated blood vessels must be removed before the hindquarters of any quadruped can be prepared for consumption . This nerve extends from the rear of the spinal column and runs down the inner side of the leg. Although some expert butchers can perform the difficult task of cutting out the sciatic nerve, in general the process is so time-consuming and costly that many kosher butchers do not handle the hindquarter at all. Packinghouses usually sell the hindquarters of kosher-slaughtered animals to the general market for nonkosher cuts of meat such as sirloin or T-bone steak and filet mignon.17 The prohibition against eating the sciatic nerve is an eternal reminder of the wrestling match between Jacob and the “stranger,” which took place as the Patriarch was returning to the Land of Israel after dwelling 20 years with his father-in-law, Laban (Gen. 32:25–32). During this titanic struggle—which resulted in Jacob’s name being changed to Israel, since he had “struggled with God”—the attacker inDietary Laws 661 jured Jacob’s thigh, resulting in a residual limp. Sefer ha-Hinnukh maintained that this commandment is a symbol of Israel’s survival; just as Jacob faced a daunting task yet emerged victorious, so Jews throughout the ages should have confidence in God’s assistance in helping them overcome the fiercest attacks of their enemies. Sforno viewed the commandment as symbolically teaching Jews that physical handicaps should not discourage their fight for survival.18 The fat portions (chelev) surrounding the kidneys, liver, stomach, and intestines, which were sacrificed on the altar in biblical and Temple times, are also forbidden for consumption (Lev. 7:23). This prohibition applies to the abdominal fat of oxen, sheep, and goats, unless it is covered by flesh; however, it was permitted to eat the fat (shemen) of the deer, hart, and other kosher wild animals that could not be used for sacrificial offerings. Abravanel wrote that eating chelev could lead one to become fat and lose the ability to function physically or mentally. Recanati maintained that fats were forbidden as food because they were included in animal sacrifices and thus were considered sacred.19 Mixing Milk and Meat The prohibition against mixing milk and meat derives from the verse, “You shall not boil a kid in its mother’s milk” (Exod. 23:19, 34:26; Deut. 14:21). Since it became impossible to determine which baby goat and which mother’s milk were related, the law was extended so that no animal (meat) could be cooked in any milk (dairy). The Rabbis interpreted the threefold repetition of this verse as defining three separate prohibitions: cooking meat and milk together, eating such a mixture, and deriving any benefit from it (such as savoring the aroma or feeding it to a pet) (Hul. 115b). The term “milk” was interpreted to mean all dairy products, such as butter, cheese, and fresh and sour cream. Because many commonly eaten processed foods contain unsuspected dairy ingredients—such as bread, cakes, and cookies made with buttermilk , nonfat dry milk, whey, or dairy-derived additives—kashrut observers always read the labels carefully and buy products only with a hechsher (kosher certification). Those Jews who are strictest about their observance of kashrut have special requirements for the dairy products they eat, consuming only those labeled chalav Yisrael (milk of the Jewish people). In addition to 662 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions making certain of the standard requirement that all milk and dairy products never come into contact with any meat or meat products, the most rigorous insist that cows be closely watched to ensure that they never eat any nonkosher food or have their milk mixed with any that is not kosher. The production of cheese is also tightly regulated. Most hard cheeses require that the milk be curdled or coagulated in rennet, the inner lining of the stomach of a calf. To be strictly kosher, the rennet must come Dietary Laws 663 KASHRUT CERTIFICATION Keeping kosher has become much easier in recent years, since at least 75% of prepackaged products (and most major brands) now have some type of kosher certification indicated by a hechsher. Coming from the same Hebrew root as the word “kosher,” a hechsher is effectively a symbol indicating that the product has been certified as kosher by a specific rabbi or organization. In addition to the kashrut symbol, many kosher certifying organizations add the letter “D” (or the word “dairy”) or “M” (or the word “meat”) as appropriate. For pareve (neither milk nor meat) products, the word itself is added, since the letter “P” is used to indicate that a product is kosher for Passover. In the absence of such clarifying words or letters, it is essential to read the list of ingredients carefully to determine whether the product is meat, dairy, or pareve.1 “Kosher-style” is a meaningless term, since a product is either kosher or not kosher. Indeed, the term is highly misleading since it “tends to confer credibility upon merchants doing business in the Jewish community by attaching a quasi-religious label to their wares, when in fact no kosher status exists.” It is important to remember that so-called Jewish foods—such as challah, gefilte fish, blintzes, kugel, latkes, and even chicken soup—are not inherently kosher. Even though they are associated with Jewish traditions, these items must still be prepared from kosher ingredients according to the dietary laws.2 from a kosher animal that was slaughtered in a ritually correct manner and whose stomach was correctly prepared and thoroughly dried. Conservative halakhic interpretation permits all hard cheeses. Today, cheese can be made using vegetable enzymes.20 In order to create a “fence around the Torah,” the Rabbis decreed that the separation of meat from milk must be as complete as possible. Thus it is necessary to use separate utensils (pots, pans, dishes, and flatware) for dairy foods and meat (known in Yiddish as milchig and fleishig, respectively). This entails storing the utensils in separate areas, washing them in separate bowls or sinks, and drying them with different dishcloths (ideally of distinct colors to prevent any mistake). When using a dishwasher, it is necessary to have separate dish racks; if these are not available, the dishwasher must be run through a cycle between meat and dairy loads. Because meat takes a long time to digest, or due to residual meat particles or fatty residues caught in the teeth or their taste remaining on the palate, Jewish law rules that one must wait a designated period after eating a meat meal before ingesting milk products. Customs range from an hour for Jews of Dutch ancestry to three hours for German Jews and six hours for those from other European countries. The waiting time between milk and meat is much shorter. One is generally permitted to eat meat almost immediately after a milk meal, after thoroughly rinsing the mouth and eating a piece of bread or some other “neutral” solid. After hard cheese, however, it is customary to wait a longer period (up to six hours in some traditions) before eating meat. Today, there is wide availability of imitation milk derived from soybeans , coconuts, almonds, rice, and oats that may be used with meat. Fruit, vegetables, grains, and eggs are all considered neutral (pareve) and may be eaten together with milk or meat dishes. Fish is also a neutral food, but the Rabbis traditionally prohibited cooking or eating fish and meat together because they were convinced that this mixture was dangerous for one’s health. Today, there is a difference of opinion on the subject of eating meat and fish together. Maimonides viewed the prohibition against mixing meat and milk as an attack on idolatry and superstition.21 He argued that combining meat and milk was a pagan custom and thus not appropriate for Jews. Abravanel and Luzzatto maintained that it was a humanitarian ordinance to discourage a practice that would tend to harden the heart.22 664 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions Ibn Ezra argued that it would be the “act of a cruel heart” to take milk, a substance that the Creator made to nourish life, and use it in a manner designed to destroy that life.23 Rationales for the Dietary Laws Many attempts have been made to explain the dietary laws. The Bible defines them as hukim, divine statutes that by definition are not explained in the text. However, the underlying rationale for the laws of kashrut is stated in the verse, “You shall sanctify yourselves and be holy, for I [your God] am holy” (Lev. 11:44). This commandment has two aspects: the positive aspect of imitating God by manifesting such divine traits as being merciful and loving, and the negative aspect of withdrawing from things that are impure and abominable. Thus Jews were required to avoid anything that could defile them, either physically or spiritually.24 The consumption of nonkosher food impedes people’s ability to elevate and sanctify themselves, dulling their spiritual potential and creating a barrier between Jews and their perceptions of holiness. Maimonides noted that “the dietary laws train us in the mastery over our appetites; they accustom us to restrain both the growth of desire and the disposition to consider the pleasure of eating and drinking as the end of man’s existence.”25 This concept is illustrated in the Sifra (11:22), a halakhic midrash on Leviticus, which states: “Let not a man say, ‘I do not like the flesh of swine.’ On the contrary, he should say, ‘I like it but must abstain, seeing that the Torah has forbidden it.’” Effects on the Soul For Ezekiel (33:25), the eating of blood was equivalent to the sins of idolatry and murder. Conversely, abstaining from this practice decreases the innate human instinct for violence. The Zohar extended this to all forbidden food, noting that the consuming of blood and the worshiping of idols are both referred to as “abominations.” The prohibition of birds of prey, which survive by their ability to kill other creatures, is a moral injunction against taking advantage of one another, for such predatory behavior is out of character with the Jewish attitudes of compassion and mercy.26 For Ibn Ezra, the prohibition against aesthetically Dietary Laws 665 repulsive animals (such as eels, roaches, and ants) was simply that it would be impossible for one to have a pure, clean conscience with the knowledge that his own flesh is the product of a diet of insects, snakes, and other vermin. In his allegorical Torah commentary, Akedat Yitzhak,27 Isaac ben Moses Arama (15th century) wrote: “The reason behind all the dietary prohibitions is not that any harm may be caused to the body, but that these foods defile and pollute the soul and blunt the intellectual powers, thus leading to confused opinions and a lust for perverse and brutish appetites that lead men to destruction, thus defeating the purpose of Creation.” Effects on the Body As a physician, Maimonides observed, “All food that is forbidden by the Law is unwholesome.”28 Sefer ha-Hinnukh noted that “the injurious effect of some forbidden foods in not known to us, or even to physicians . The True Faithful Doctor who has commanded us in all these things is infinitely wiser than we. How petty and foolish is the man who thinks that only those things which his understanding grasps are true, and everything else, everything unknown to him, is not true.”29 Maimonides maintained that the reason for the injunction against the consumption of sacrificial fat (chelev) was that “it fattens and destroys the abdomen and creates cold and clammy blood.”30 Concerning the prohibition of milk and meat, he added, “Meat boiled in milk is undoubtedly gross food, and makes a person feel overfull.”31 Later authorities argued that certain animals (especially nonkosher ones) harbor parasites that spread disease. Indeed, medieval Jews suffered less than their gentile neighbors from the waves of epidemics that decimated the population. Separation The dietary laws preserved the distinction between the Jews and other neighboring peoples (Tob. 1:10–11), as is first told in the story of Joseph, when the Egyptians refuse to eat with their Hebrew visitors (Gen. 43:32). Later, the young Daniel in the Babylonian court “resolved not to defile himself with the king’s food or the wine he drank”; he made do with a spare vegetarian diet (Dan. 1:8, 12). And Judith ate her own food 666 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions when she dined with a Babylonian general (Judith 12:2). In the Maccabean period, obedience to the dietary laws became such a mark of Jewish loyalty that Jews chose martyrdom rather than eating pig meat.32 For the early Rabbis, the secret of Jewish survival was separatism— being a holy people required being a people apart. As expressed in the early Apocryphal Book of Jubilees (22:16): “Separate yourself from the nations, do not eat with them, do not act according to their deeds, and do not associate with them, because their work is uncleanness, all their ways are contamination, detestation and abomination. They slaughter their sacrifices to the dead and pray to demons.”33 By following the dietary laws, the observant Jew may have less opportunity to socialize with non-Jews (since this often entails eating together). According to this view, the observance of kashrut has been a critical factor in decreasing the rates of Jewish assimilation and intermarriage.34 Conclusion The general consensus is that the Torah is not a medical textbook and the dietary laws are not primarily designed to preserve bodily health. Rather, as Samuel Dresner wrote: Kashrut demands sacrifice, self-discipline and determination—but what that is really worthwhile in life does not? It demands the courage to turn our face against the powerful current of conformity that almost overcomes us daily. The goal of kashrut is holiness, a holy man and a holy nation. It is part of Judaism’s attempt to hallow the common act of eating, which is an aspect of our animal nature. It likewise sets us apart from the nations. Thus it achieves its objective— holiness—in these two ways, both of which are implied in the Hebrew word kadosh: inner hallowing and outer separateness.”35 Seven Species (Myn!m1h- ti-b4D1) The Torah lists seven species of agricultural produce that symbolize the fertility of the Land of Israel: wheat, barley, grapes, figs, pomegranates, olive oil, and honey from dates (Deut. 8:8). Once the Israelites settled in Canaan, they were commanded to bring their first fruits (bikurim) as ofSeven Species 667 ferings to the Kohanim in Jerusalem (Exod. 23:16, 34:22; Num. 28:26). Although no specific fruits or grains are mentioned in the biblical text, Rabbi Akiva declared that they were the seven species listed above (Bik. 3:9). Each year, when Jews went out to their fields and saw that these crops were beginning to ripen, they would mark their “first fruits” by tying straw around them (Bik. 3:1). When the crops had ripened completely , the farmer would bring them to the Temple in Jerusalem, at any time between Shavuot (also known as Hag ha-Bikurim) and Sukkot.1 “Those who lived near [to Jerusalem] brought fresh figs and grapes, but those from a distance brought dried figs and raisins [since fresh fruit would rot on the way]” (Bik. 3:3). Because the bikurim symbolized the readiness of Jews to devote the first fruits of their labors on earth to the service of God, the trip to Jerusalem was celebrated in every town and city along the way with music and parades.2 “An ox with horns bedecked with gold and with an olive-crown on its head led the way, and a flute was played before them” (Bik. 3:3). “The rich brought their bikurim in baskets overlaid with silver or gold, while the poor used wicker baskets of peeled willow branches” (Bik. 3:8). When they reached the Temple Mount, those bringing their first fruits were greeted by Levites, who raised their voices in song. After presenting their basket of first fruits to the Kohen, the farmers were commanded to recite a brief synopsis of Jewish history, humbly thanking God for treating Jacob mercifully in his hour of need, delivering the Israelites from slavery in Egypt, and bringing the Jewish people to their Promised Land flowing with milk and honey (Deut. 26:1–11). Beginning with words that can be translated either “my father (Jacob) was a fugitive Aramean” or “an Aramean (the deceitful Laban) tried to destroy my forefather (Jacob),” these verses became an important part of the Passover haggadah. The thanksgiving offering of first fruits was visible proof of the fulfillment of the divine promise to the Patriarchs that their descendants would become a great nation dwelling in comfort in a rich and fertile land. The recitation had to be in Hebrew, and those that could not speak the language were required to repeat the words after the Kohen. When farmers not conversant in Hebrew began to refrain from bringing their first fruits out of shame, it was decided that everyone must repeat the words after the Kohen (Bik. 3:7). 668 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions Wheat (he<=c1) A valuable crop since ancient times, wheat (chitah, plural chittim) was sown in the Land of Israel, like barley, at the beginning of the winter, but it develops more slowly and ripens about two months later (Exod. 9:31–32). Therefore, the omer (first barley crop; see p. 293) is brought on Passover, but the “first fruits of the wheat harvest” are offered seven weeks later on Shavuot (Exod. 34:22). During biblical times, an abundant wheat harvest (“the finest wheat”) symbolized well-being and peace (Ps. 81:17, 147:14). The choicest wheat was used in meal offerings, and this grain was considered superior to barley. Although wheat was initially the food of the rich, as agriculture improved during mishnaic and talmudic times, wheat became the common food for all. The prophets frequently used the metaphor of separating the kernels of wheat (righteous) from the useless chaff (sinners). Although wheat (with barley) was the essential raw material of bread, the staple of the Israelite diet, the Torah emphasizes that “man does not live on bread alone” (Deut. 8:3). For the Rabbis, flour (kemach) served as a metaphor for a person’s earnings that provided sufficient funds for his or her bodily needs, which were essential for the more important task of study. A popular song derived from Pirkei Avot (3:21) recognizes the interrelationship of the physical and spiritual aspects of life, observing that “without flour, there is no Torah; without Torah, there is no flour.” In a practical vein, the Rabbis observed that “one who grows wheat is sure of his bread, but one who buys wheat in the market, his future is doubtful” (Men. 103b). Barley (hr+oiS4) Barley (se’orah) was the grain used in the bread, cakes, and porridge that formed the staple of the Israelite diet during biblical times. One of the world’s most ancient cultivated grains, its hardiness and ability to resist drought made it the foremost crop. The importance of barley in biblical times can be seen from the injunction that the valuation of a field was determined according to the amount of this grain that could be sown in it (Lev. 27:16). When wheat became more plentiful and the preferred source of flour in mishnaic times, barley was relegated to the Seven Species 669 poor and as food for livestock. Although still added to some soups and stews, in modern Israel barley is most commonly used as the primary ingredient in brewing locally produced beer.3 As the first grain to ripen, barley was a symbol of spring (Ruth 1:22). The first omer of barley was reaped on the second day of Passover (see p. 265), marking the beginning of the spring harvest season (Lev. 23:9–15). The end of the barley harvest (and the beginning of the wheat harvest) is associated with the festival of Shavuot, when the Book of Ruth (which takes place during the barley harvest) is read in synagogue.4 Grapes (Myb1n+i7) Since ancient days, the grapevines of the Land of Israel were celebrated for their quality and abundance. The first cultivated plant mentioned in the Bible is the grapevine (Gen. 9:20–24), which was planted by Noah immediately after the flood, though “he drank of the wine and became drunk.” When the 12 spies returned from Canaan, two of them were required to carry a single cluster of grapes on a pole (Num. 13:23)—an image used in advertisements promoting tourism in modern Israel. Along with the fig, the vine symbolizes the fertility and peace of the land (1 Kings 1:5) and evokes the image of messianic redemption (Mic. 4:4; see p. 619). The drinking of wine has long been an essential element of Jewish ceremonial celebrations. The Sabbath and festivals are greeted and conclude with blessings over a cup of wine (Kiddush, see p. 138; Havdalah, see p. 149). Four cups of wine are drunk at the seders on Passover (see p. 274) and Tu b’Shevat (see p. 254), as well as at circumcisions and weddings. Throughout Europe, spilling wine on the ground was a folk custom believed to appease evil spirits. Although this may have been the genesis of the Jewish customs of spilling drops of wine at the recitation of the 10 plagues (see p. 282) and overfilling the Kiddush and Havdalah cups, these practices soon were transformed into symbols of thanks to God, as in the joyful declaration in Psalms (23:5), “my cup runneth over.”5 Kosher wine must be produced under rabbinic supervision. Only Sabbath-observant Jews are permitted to handle the wine or operate the wine-making equipment from grape crushing to consumption. An 670 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions exception is wine that is mevushal (pasteurized, lit. “boiled”). In this process, the wine is heated to the boiling point so that air bubbles are brought to the surface with some loss of the liquid due to evaporation. This is required according to the laws of kashrut for a wine to retain its kosher status once opened and poured by a non-Jew (such as a waiter). Thus a wine that is produced in this manner retains its religious purity, regardless of who opens or pours it. The prohibition against Jews drinking wine prepared by gentiles was initially instituted lest some of it may have been used as a libation in a pagan ceremony connected with idol worship. In rabbinic times, this decree remained in effect to prevent Jews from fraternizing with gentiles in social situations, which could lead to assimilation or intermarriage.6 Figs (hn+a2t<4) In ancient times, the fig (t’einah) was eaten fresh or as a seasoning as well as used to make honey and alcohol. With two crops, in early and midsummer, the fig is best eaten straight from the tree in the late afternoon after being baked naturally by the sun.7 Dried figs were pressed into cakes for travelers (1 Sam. 25:18) and were used as a poultice for treating skin disorders (Isa. 38:21).8 The fig is the first fruit mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 3:7). Adam and Eve covered themselves with the broad leaves of a fig tree when they became ashamed of their nakedness after eating the forbidden fruit in the Garden of Eden. Throughout the Bible, the fig (and vine) symbolize the existence of peace and security in the Land of Israel (1 Kings 1:5; Zech. 3:10). In his vision of the future Messianic Age, the prophet Micah (4:4) promised that “each man will dwell under his own vine and fig tree, and none will be afraid.” Pomegranate (Nom