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Proper Behavior and Ethical Living
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Proper Behavior and Ethical Living Gemilut Hasadim (Myd!s=c7 tVlym1g<$) As Shimon the Just declared in the opening lines of Pirkei Avot (1:2), “On three things does the [continued] existence of the world depend: Torah [study], avodah [initially the temple service, later prayer], and gemilut hasadim.” Thus gemilut hasadim (lit., “the giving of lovingkindness ”) is a core social value, which the Rabbis considered a quintessential and distinctive attribute of the Jew. “Whoever denies the duty of gemilut hasadim denies the fundamental of Judaism” (Eccles. R. 7:1). Gemilut hasadim was one of the three characteristics required to be “fit to join this nation [i.e., be a true member of the Jewish people]” (Yev. 79a). Those failing to cultivate this virtue were even suspected of not being of Jewish descent. Gemilut hasadim is enumerated among the things “that have no fixed measure,” for which “man enjoys the fruits in this world, while the principal remains for him in the world to come” (Pe’ah 1:1). More comprehensive a virtue than tzedakah (charity; see p. 531), the Talmud states that gemilut hasadim is superior to charity in three respects: “Charity can be given only with one’s money; gemilut hasadim, both by personal service and with money. Charity can be given only to the poor; gemilut hasadim, both to rich and poor. Charity can be given only to the living; gemilut hasadim, both to the living and the dead [by attending the funeral and the burial]” (Suk. 49b). Thus helping a blind person across the street is an act of gemilut hasadim, though not of charity. A grudging gift to a poor person may qualify as charity; but by adding a sincere smile and a kind word, the same amount is transformed into gemilut hasadim. Indeed, the ultimate example of gemilut hasadim (termed hesed shel emet; the “true” lovingkindness) is giving honor to the dead, since 530 there is no chance that the deceased will ever return the favor. There is no maximum limit on acts of personal service (“with his body”) that one can do for another, whereas donations of money and other material goods are restricted to one-fifth of one’s possessions (JT Pe’ah 1:1, 15b). During the Middle Ages, the broad concept of gemilut hasadim became restricted to the granting of interest-free loans to the needy. At a time when money lending (to non-Jews) was the major Jewish occupation , making a loan to a fellow Jew without interest essentially precluded the opportunity to use that money for a profitable business transaction. In the modern period, the term “gemilut hasadim” has again been expanded to refer not only to free-loan societies but also to a wide variety of communal welfare organizations. Ismar Schorsch1 observes that the Torah begins and ends with God performing the supreme Jewish value of gemilut hasadim.2 As Adam and Eve are about to be exiled from the Garden of Eden, God Himself sewed the first couple their “garments of skin ... and clothed them” (Gen. 3:21). When Moses dies alone on Mount Nebo after viewing the Promised Land that he was forbidden from entering, the Bible states, “He buried him in the valley in the land of Moab ... and no one knows his burial place to this day” (Deut. 34:6). According to Rabbi Simlai, this means that it was God who took responsibility for attending to the funeral of the Lawgiver of Israel (Sot. 14a). In the same discussion, the Talmud figuratively interprets the verse, “Follow none but the Lord Your God” (Deut. 13:5), as indicating that the essence of morality is to act in a “God-like” manner toward other human beings. In emulation of God’s actions of gemilut hasadim, we also should clothe the naked, visit the sick, comfort the mourners, and bury the dead. Similarly, in interpreting the verse in Shirat ha-Yam (Song at the Sea; see p. 409), “This is my God and I will glorify Him” (Exod. 15:2), the Jew can do justice to the glory of God only by “aspiring to the divine level of mercy and compassion.” Tzedakah (hq=d+x4) The Bible repeatedly stresses the obligation to aid those in need, but never designates a special term for this requirement. The Rabbis adopted the word “tzedakah” to apply to charity, primarily in the form Tzedakah 531 [54.166.223.204] Project MUSE (2024-03-28 17:20 GMT) of giving gifts to the poor, which they deemed one of the essential mitzvot of Judaism. Tzedakah literally means “righteousness” or “justice ,” as in the famous biblical phrase, “tzedek, tzedek, tirdof” (“Justice, justice, shall you pursue”; Deut. 16:20). For the Rabbis, charity is not merely a generous or magnanimous act. Rather, it is the performance of a religiously mandated duty to provide something to which the needy have a right. By providing the chance to carry out an important mitzvah , “the poor man does more for the householder [in accepting alms] than the householder does for the poor man [by giving him the charity ]” (Lev. R. 34:8). Both wealth and poverty are determined by God, who is the ultimate owner of all human possessions—“Give unto God of what is His, seeing that you and what you have are God’s” (Avot 3:8)—and therefore a person should be willing to give whatever he or she has to fulfill the divine will. There is a critical distinction between the Jewish ideal of “tzedakah” and the Christian concept of “charity,” which has dominated the connotation of the English word. Charity comes from the Latin “caritas” (love), as does the Greek term “philanthropy,” which literally means “love of human beings.” Christianity focuses on charity as motivated by love for our fellow human beings—though many of those in need of assistance are dirty, diseased, and even dangerous and are difficult for most people to love. Judaism takes a more realistic view, requiring us to provide assistance not because we love the people in need of help but simply because it is right—we have resources and they have need. This does not mean that Jewish ethics has no concept of love or philanthropy ; instead it uses the term “gemilut hasadim” (see p. 530), which implies going above the requirements of the law (i.e., the tzedakah that one is obliged to provide), as an act of lovingkindness.1 Biblical Period Several biblical commandments require the Israelite to leave some of the produce of the fields and vineyards for the poor. When reaping the harvest, the farmer was commanded to leave a corner (pe’ah) of the field (Lev. 19:9). Although the precise size of this section was not prescribed in the Torah, the Rabbis declared that it should be not less than one-sixtieth of the crop and always proportional to the size of the field, the number of the poor, and the yield of the harvest (Pe’ah 1:2). 532 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions Similarly, the farmer was required to leave the “gleanings” of the harvest (Lev. 19:9), single ears of corn that fell to the ground at the time of reaping. The Rabbis decreed that if two ears dropped they belonged to the poor, but if three or more ears fell together the farmer could retrieve them (Pe’ah 4:10). This same principle applied to the forgotten sheaf of grain in the fields (Deut. 24:19) and to single grapes that fell to the ground in the vineyard (Lev. 19:10). The Rabbis took these laws seriously : “If a man puts a basket beneath the vine while he is gathering the grapes (so no single grapes fall to the ground), he is a robber of the poor” (Pe’ah 7:3). In contrast, Rashi said, “He who leaves the gleanings, the forgotten sheaf, and the pe’ah for the poor in due manner is regarded as though he had built the Temple and offered his sacrifices therein.” Aspecial tithe for the poor was due in the third and sixth years of the sabbatical cycle (Deut. 14:28). This was the equivalent of the ma’aser sheni (second tithe) that the owner was required to separate from his harvested crop during the first, second, fourth, and fifth years and bring to Jerusalem, where he was to eat it with members of his family (Deut. 14:22). If this were impossible due to the distance, the owner was to redeem the second tithe and bring its monetary value (plus onefifth extra) to the Temple, where he was required to spend it exclusively on food and drink. However, the biblical concept of tithing dates back to a much earlier time. After rescuing his nephew Lot and defeating the alliance of five cities, Abram (Abraham) gave Melchizedek, the priest-king of Shalem, a tenth of all the spoils of war (Gen. 14:20). While fleeing from his brother and after the dream of the angels ascending and descending on a ladder stretching between earth and Heaven, Jacob vowed that if God would protect him and permit him to return safely to his father’s house, “the Lord shall be my God … [and] I will set aside a tithe for You” (Gen. 28:21–22). During the sabbatical year, there was no harvesting; whatever grew from the land was considered ownerless. Thus the owner, the servants, the poor, the stranger, and even wild and domesticated animals had equal rights to the produce (Lev. 25:6–7), so that “the needy among [the] people [may] eat of it” (Exod. 23:11). In addition, all debts outstanding at the end of the sixth year of the seven-year cycle were canceled , although this rule applied only to fellow Jews and not to gentiles Tzedakah 533 living in the Land of Israel. While the law of release of the sabbatical year canceled the right of creditors to claim their debts, debtors nevertheless remained under a moral obligation to pay. The Torah warned against letting the approach of the sabbatical year prevent one from helping a needy fellow Jew (Deut. 15:7–11). But, as the Israelites moved from an economy based on agriculture to one founded on business and commerce, the release of debts contracted in trading became onerous. People refrained from making loans to one another as the sabbatical year approached. Consequently, in the first century C.E., Hillel enacted the prosbul, in which a creditor declared before a court of law (attested by witnesses) that all debts due to him were given over to the court for collection (Shev. 10:4). Since remission of loans during the seventh year applied only to individuals and not to public loans, the effect was to render the individual’s loan public and therefore not nullified (and thus collectable after the sabbatical year). Charity was considered a divine attribute, since “[God] upholds the cause of the fatherless and the widow, and befriends the stranger, providing him with food and clothing” (Deut. 10:18). Giving to the poor was also regarded as an essential element of the righteous life. Referring to Yom Kippur, Isaiah (58:5–7) castigated those whose fast consisted of merely afflicting their souls and wearing sackcloth and ashes. Instead, in the next verses, the prophet declared that an “acceptable day to the Lord” and “the fast I [God] desire” is that Jews “share your bread with the hungry ... and take the wretched poor into your home,” and clothe the naked. According to Ezekiel (16:49), the destruction of Sodom resulted from its lack of charity: they had “had plenty of bread and untroubled tranquility; yet ... did not support the poor and the needy.” One quality manifested by “a woman of valor” (see p. 129) is that “she gives generously to the poor; her hands are stretched out to the needy” (Prov. 31:20). “He who is generous to the poor makes a loan to the Lord,” who will “repay him his due” (Prov. 19:17). When inaugurating the new festival of Purim, the Book of Esther (9:12) included the custom of sending gifts to the poor (mishloach manot; see p. 258). Talmudic and Rabbinic Period The Rabbis continually stressed the importance of tzedakah. Rabbi Assi observed that “tzedakah is equivalent to all the other religious 534 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions precepts combined” (BB 9a). Rabbi Eleazar interpreted the verse, “To do what is right [tzedakah] and just is more desired by the Lord than sacrifice” (Prov. 21:3), as meaning that “greater is he who performs charity than [he who offers] all the sacrifices” (Suk. 49b). The Rabbis believed that tzedakah “brings the redemption nearer” (BB 10a), atones for sins (BB 9a), “delivers from death” (BB 10a), and ensures that the giver “will have sons wise, wealthy, and versed in the aggadah [i.e., learned]” (BB 19b). “Anyone who shuts his eye against charity is like one who worships idols” (Ket. 68a). Based on the verse, “and I, in righteousness [tzedek], will see Your face” (Ps. 17:1),2 it is customary to give charity just before praying. Along with teshuvah (repentance) and tefillah (prayer), tzedakah can “avert the severity of the decree” (RH 16b) when God judges all on Rosh Hashanah (U-netaneh Tokef, see p. 185). Since the Rabbis deemed tzedakah a biblical commandment, they defined its parameters in precise detail—who is required to give, who is permitted to receive, how much one should give, and in what manner. These laws were codified by Maimonides in his Mishneh Torah3 and later in the Tur and the Shulchan Arukh (YD 247–259). Who Must Give Every person has a duty to give charity. “Even a poor man who himself subsists on charity should give charity” (Git. 7b). The rabbinic court has the power to compel a person to give an amount of charity commensurate with his or her economic situation (Ket. 49b). Based on the verse, “If you lend money to My people, to the poor among you” (Exod. 22:24), the Rabbis drew several inferences: “Between a Jew and a gentile, My people come first; ... between your poor [members of your family] and the [general] poor of your town, your poor come first; between the poor of your city and of another city, the ‘poor among you’ [of your city] come first” (BM 71a). Nevertheless, according to the Shulchan Arukh, this rule does not apply to the poor of the Land of Israel, who have priority over all. The Rabbis maintained that charity should be given to the non-Jewish poor “to preserve good relations,” though they strongly urged Jews not to accept financial assistance from non-Jews unless absolutely necessary. Tzedakah 535 Who May Receive AJew should do everything possible to avoid having to take charity. As Rabbi Akiva said, “Treat your Sabbath like a weekday [not buying special food and drink] rather than be dependent on man [i.e., take from charity]” (Pes. 112a). Individuals should take any work that is available , even if they think it is beneath their dignity, rather than depending on community charity. The greatest of the sages adhered to this principle, performing physical labor to support themselves and remain independent. “Flay carcasses [skin unclean animals] in the market place and earn wages and do not say, ‘I am a priest and a great man and it is beneath my dignity’” (Pes. 113a). According to Maimonides, “a person who is really entitled to take charity but delays doing so and thus suffers rather than be a burden to the community will surely be rewarded and not die before he reaches a position in which he will be able to support others. About such a person was it written: ‘Blessed is he who trusts in the Lord’ (Jer. 17:7).”4 Nevertheless, a person should not feel embarrassed to accept charity when unable to obtain money and support in any other way. Indeed, refusing charity when needed is a sin, and any suffering this entails is equivalent to shedding one’s own blood. If a poor person has too much pride to accept charity, he or she can be misled into believing that a gift is really a loan. However, if a person “has the means and does not wish to maintain himself [at his own expense], no one need feel any concern about him” (Ket. 67b). How Much One Should Give The general rabbinic principle is that one is required to give a tenth of one’s wealth to charity. “If a man desires to spend liberally [in charity] he should not spend more than a fifth, [since by spending more] he might himself come to be in need [of the help] of people [i.e., dependent on charity]” (Ket. 50a). Charity is not meant to merely provide the essentials of life; the psychological needs and social status of the recipient should be taken into consideration. Reflecting on the biblical phrase “you must open your hand and lend him sufficient for whatever he needs” (Deut. 15:8) (in the context of lending money before the sabbatical year cancels all private debts), the Rabbis state that one must 536 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions “maintain him but not make him rich” (Ket. 67b). The story is related that a formerly wealthy man of good family who had become impoverished asked Hillel to provide him funds for a horse and a slave to run before him, so that the man could preserve his image in the community. “On one occasion he [Hillel] could not find a slave to run before him, so he himself ran before him for three miles.” How to Give When giving charity, it is essential that the recipient not be shamed in any way. Consideration for the sensibilities of the poor led the Rabbis to observe that the best form of giving charity is when neither the donor nor the recipient know the identity of the other (BB 10b). Indeed, the Talmud relates some of the clever schemes that the sages invented so that they could remain anonymous when giving charity (Ket. 67b; Taan. 21b–22a). Maimonides offered a list of eight degrees of charity.5 The highest is giving money to prevent others from ever becoming poor, such as by offering a loan or employment or investing in someone’s business. It is much harder for people to emerge from bankruptcy than for them to be helped before their business fails. Rashi noted that when a donkey ’s load begins to slip from its back, a single man is capable of adjusting it and keeping the donkey from falling. Once the animal has fallen, however, even five people cannot get it back on its feet. The second highest level of charity is the rabbinic ideal of giving to the poor in such a way that neither the donor nor the recipient knows the identity of the other. In descending order, the next levels of charity are the donor knows the recipient, but the recipient does not know the donor; the recipient knows the donor, but the donor does not know the recipient ; giving directly to a poor person without being asked; giving only after being asked; giving cheerfully but less than one should; and giving grudgingly. Charity not only is required of the individual Jew but also is an obligation of the entire community. Indeed, Maimonides observed that “in every town where there are Jews they must appoint ‘charity wardens’ (gabba’ei tzedakah), men who are well-known and honest, who should collect money from the people before every Sabbath and distribute it to the poor … We have never seen or heard of a Jewish community which Tzedakah 537 does not have a charity fund.”6 To ensure scrupulous honesty, a minimum of two wardens was required to collect charitable contributions (food and clothing as well as money), and at least three were needed to decide how much should be given to whom. In addition to maintaining the poor, the charitable fund was also used to redeem captives, dower poor brides, and establish communal soup kitchens to provide food for those who did not have sufficient funds for two meals each day.7 The Rabbis debated how long a person had to be a resident of a town before being required to contribute to the community charitable funds (BB 8a). Although the general conclusion was 12 months, this was reduced to “30 days [to be liable for contributing] to the soup kitchen, three months for the charity box, six months for the clothing fund, nine months for the burial fund, and 12 months for contributing to the repair of the town walls.” (Rabbis, however, did not have to donate to the repair of the walls, because they “do not require protection!”) Medieval and Modern Periods Institutions for providing charitable assistance developed at an early period in medieval Jewish communities. The major method of relief was the donation of money through the charity box (kuppah). Collections were made in private homes, in the synagogue just before the start of major festivals (including gifts to the poor on Purim), and even in the cemetery. To alleviate the burden on the less affluent, the community was empowered to impose taxes on its wealthier members for charitable activities. Among Ashkenazic Jews, a special communal representative randomly drew from a container of tickets supplied by each householder to determine where poor men could eat (and even sleep) for that day. Charitable associations (hevra) dedicated to specific purposes developed in all substantial Jewish communities. Among these were societies for visiting the sick (bikur holim; see p. 542) and preparing the dead for burial (hevra kadisha; see p. 78). The community provided accommodations for the transient sick or travelers at the hekdesh (hospital , hospice, or poor house). Larger Jewish communities employed a physician to give medical care to the indigent. Provision was made for dowerless brides by the hakhnasat kallah, no-interest loans were granted, and a Talmud Torah was maintained to educate the children of the poor. 538 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions [54.166.223.204] Project MUSE (2024-03-28 17:20 GMT) Today, there are a host of local, national, and international philanthropic enterprises. Jews have long been in the forefront in providing funds both to care of their coreligionists and for other charitable causes. In America, every sizable Jewish community conducts a single fundraising campaign each year to support a broad range of activities, including bureaus of Jewish education; vocational, family, and medical services; and community centers. Charitable agencies have evolved on a national scale, often coordinating the activities of local units. There are also a large number of international charitable organizations that are specifically concerned with the welfare of Jews living in the State of Israel. Hospitality (Hakhnasat Orchim; Myk1r$oa ts-n+k4h-) Welcoming the stranger (ger) is a major ethical value in Jewish tradition , ultimately related to the historical experience of the Israelites as being “strangers in the land of Egypt” (Lev. 19:34). The Bible recounts numerous incidents of hospitality. When Abraham saw the three men of Mamre “from afar,” he raced to bring them to his house and provide for their physical needs: “Let a little water be brought; bathe your feet and recline under the tree. And let me fetch a morsel of bread that you may refresh yourselves; then go on.”(Gen. 18:1–5). Just before the Akedah (binding of Isaac), Abraham “planted a tamarisk tree in Beersheba ” (Gen. 21:33). According to the Talmud, the Hebrew name for this tree (eshel) is an acronym for eating (achilah), drinking (sh’tiyah), and lodging (linah)—three integral components of Abraham’s devotion to the mitzvah of welcoming the stranger (Sot. 10a). When Abraham sent his servant to find a wife for Isaac, Laban warmly welcomed the emissary (Gen. 24:28–32), while Rebecca graciously watered the traveler’s thirsty camels (Gen. 24:19–20). Jethro the Midianite chastised his daughters (“Where is he then? Why did you leave the man? Ask him in to break bread”; Exod. 2:20) for failing to invite home the stranger (Moses) who had rescued them from the shepherds (Exod. 2:20). When the angel came to announce the upcoming birth of his son Samson, Manoah would not permit the celestial being to depart before sharing in his hospitality (“Let us detain you and prepare a kid for you”; Judg. 13:15). The Shunamite woman prepared a “small enclosed upper chamber” with a “bed, a table, and chair, and a Hospitality 539 lampstand” for the prophet Elisha “so that he can stop there whenever he comes to [visit] us” (2 Kings 4:8–11). However, protection of guests could be taken to a horrendous extent. Because of the sacred duty of providing asylum to those who “have come under the shelter of my roof,” Lot was willing to allow the men of Sodom to take his daughters and “do to them as you please” so that he could safeguard his male guests (who were complete strangers) from homosexual rape (Gen. 19:4–8). Some acts of hospitality are specifically rewarded. After hiding Joshua’s two spies, Rahab (and her family) was protected from harm when the Israelites conquered and utterly destroyed Jericho (Josh. 2). Conversely, the shameful violation of this virtue by the Benjamites led to the Israelites waging war on them (Judg. 19:22, 20:17). The only “breach of hospitality” praised in the Bible was Yael’s killing of Sisera, the Canaanite general, when he sought refuge in her home after fleeing from the Israelites under Barak (Judg. 4:18–24, 5:24–27). According to the Talmud, a lack of hospitality led directly to the destruction of the Second Temple (Git. 55b–56a). A certain unnamed man had a friend named Kamtza and an enemy named Bar Kamtza. When hosting a large banquet, his servant was instructed to invite Kamtza; but the servant mistakenly asked Bar Kamtza instead. When the host saw his adversary, he furiously demanded that Bar Kamtza leave immediately . The abashed guest pleaded to be allowed to remain, even offering to pay for the cost of his dinner. When the host refused, Bar Kamtza raised his offer, first to half and then to the entire expense of the banquet. Eventually, the host ordered his servants to throw Bar Kamtza out of his house. The mortified guest was determined to exact revenge, not merely on his host, but against all of Jerusalem, since many of the leading rabbis of the city had been present at the banquet but none had done anything to prevent his disgrace. Bar Kamtza convinced the Roman emperor that the Jews of Jerusalem were plotting against his rule—thus precipitating the destruction of the Temple due to the lack of hospitality of a nameless host.1 For the Rabbis, hakhnasat orchim (lit., “bringing in of guests”) was regarded as an important element of gemilut hasadim (the giving of lovingkindness ; see p. 530), one of the mitzvot “which man performs and enjoys their fruits in this world, while the principal remains for him for the world to come” (Shab. 127a). They believed that “hospitality to 540 The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions wayfarers is greater than welcoming the presence of the Shekhinah [Divine Presence],” based on Abraham having turned away from God (who was visiting the Patriarch to distract him from the pain of his recent circumcision) to attend to the needs of the three strangers (Gen. 18:1–2). One who “entertains a scholar in his house and lets him enjoy his possessions ... [was regarded] as if he had sacrificed the daily burnt offering” (Ber. 10b). Extolling the virtue of hospitality, the Rabbis related that Abraham and Job kept the doors of their homes open on all four sides, so that strangers would feel welcome and easily enter them. Whenever he had a meal, Rabbi Huna “would open the door wide [as an invitation to strangers] and declare, ‘Whosoever is in need let him come and eat’” (Taan. 20b); this Aramaic saying, “Kol dich’fin yeitei v’yeichul,” is still recited at the Passover seder. Conversely, the Rabbis condemned the insensitive guest (especially a scholar) who took advantage of hospitality. To make hakhnasat orchim a mutually rewarding experience, they attempted to clearly define the duties of both parties. A host must not make guests uncomfortable, whether by appearing depressed, tending to their needs too assiduously , or failing to personally serve them. In return, the Talmud states that a guest was required to appreciate all the efforts of the host (“How much trouble my host has taken for me! How much meat, wine, and cakes he has set before me!” [Ber. 58a]), and to recite a special blessing for the host in the Grace after Meals (Ber. 46a), which in the Shulchan Arukh appears as: “May it be God’s will that this host should not be shamed nor humiliated in this world or the world to come. May he be successful in all his dealings and they be conveniently close at hand. May no evil impediment reign over his handiwork, and may no semblance of sin or iniquitous thought attach itself to him from this time and forever.” Today, the accepted text is: “May the compassionate One bless the man and woman of this house, them, this house, their family, and all that is theirs.”2 This is contrasted with the thoughts of a bad guest: “How much effort did my host make for me? I have eaten [only] one piece of bread, I have eaten [only] one slice of meat, and I have drunk [only] one cup of wine! Whatever trouble my host has taken was only for the sake of his wife and his children!” (Ber. 58a). The proper guest also leaves some food on the plate (Er. 53b) and obeys the requests of his or her host (“Whatever your host tells you, Hospitality 541 do”; Pes. 86b). A morbid story illustrates the concept that a guest should not give food to others unless the host approves (Hul. 94a). During a time of scarcity, a man invited three guests to his house and set before them his only three eggs. The host’s child wandered in and each guest gave him his egg. When the father returned and saw the child stuffing one egg in his mouth and holding two in his hands, he was so enraged by this apparent breach of hospitality that he struck and accidentally killed the child. Stricken with grief, the father threw himself off the roof to his death, as did the mother when she came upon this grisly sight. As the Talmud concluded, “Because of this, three souls in Israel perished.” A midrash indicates that guests who remain for more than three days are overstaying their welcome (Tehillim R. 23:3). “On the day a guest arrives, a calf is slaughtered in his honor; the next day, a sheep; the third day, a fowl; and on the fourth day, he is served just beans!”3 Visiting the Sick (Bikur Holim; Myl!oc rVq