History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism

American Anti-Semitism

American AnU-Semltlsm Jonathan D. Sama The fact that a volwne on the history ofanti-Semitism includes a briefAmerican perspective is itselfnoteworthy. Earlier surveys of anti-Semitism, whether found inthe AmericanJewish Year Book orin as scholarly a volwne as Koppel Pinson's Essays on Antisemitism (1946). studiously avoided including any mention ofAmerica in the context of worldwide Judeophobia. To speak of American anti-Semitism and European anti-Semitism in the same breath seemed a1most blasphemous. Even to speak of American antiSemitism on its own took courage. As late as 1947, a scholarly article dealing with anti-Semitism thatappeared in the Publications if the American Jewish Historical Society began with an daborate justification. "We can," it explained, "no longer dismiss antiSemitism with a wave ofthe hand or a flourish ofthe pen. As an influence in American Jewish lifu--although a negative one to be sure-its study comes within the scope of this Society's activities." I Today nobody would think that undertaking a study of American anti-Semitism requires advance justification. Not only has the subject acquired legitimacy. but also it has now become one ofthe most intensely examined aspects ofAmerican life, the subject ofinnumerable books and monographs,2 and the focus of full sessions at the annual meetings ofsuch prestigious scholarly 115 associations as the American Historical Association and the Organization ofAmerican Historians. No consensus hasemergedfrom all of these vigorous efforts, not even a dear definition of what anti-Semitism in the American context means. But two questions do seem to me to have emerged as central: 1. How important a role has anti-Semitism played in American life? 2. Is America different in tenus of anti-Semitism, and if so,how? The Role ifAnti-Semitism With regard to the first question, the significance of antiSemitism in American life, there are, as might be expected, several divergentopinions. The most traditional one, which I label minimalist, considers anti-Semitism to be a late and alien phenomenon on the Americanscene: a post-Civil Wardevelopment, linked to the rise ofboth "scientific" racism and anti-immigrant nativism, and then confined largely to the ranks ofthe disaffected. Earlier on in America, according to this view, such Judeophobic attitudes failed to take root. Jews were instead considered, as Oscar Handlin put it, "wonderful in their past achievements . . . stillmore wonderful in theirpreservation." J Isolated incidents did occur-Peter Stuyvesant's effort to keep Jews out of New Amsterdam, the recall of Consul Mordecai Noah lTom Tunis on account of his religion, or General Grant's Order # 11 ousting Jews from his war zone-but in the minimalist interpretation these serve only as exceptions that prove the rule. Since in every case the severity of the evil decree was somehow mitigated and Jews ultimately emerged triumphant, these incidents are not viewed as "incompatible with the total acceptance of Jews as Americans,"4 Minimalists imply that hate would cease ifAmericans would only return to the virtuous ways oftheir forebears. JJ6 Jonathan D. Sarna As against this view, there is another and diametricallyopposite perspective on anti-Semitism in America, which I label maximalist. Maximallsts, influenced by recent trends in American historiography. particularly the study ofracism, find anti-Semites stalking the length and breadth of American history, from colonial times down to the present. They know, as minimalists do not, that anti-Jewish slurs, discrimination against Jews, even acts of violence directed against Jewish- institutions have stained the pages of American history for over three centuries. Blood libels, professional anti-Semitic crusaders, and avowed Nazis have, at one time or another, also appeared on the American scene. lhe conclusion that maximalists draw from this js plainly stated by Michael Selzer in his "Kike!": A Documentary History?fAnti-Semitism in America: lhere is no reason to believe that from the vast reservoir of bigotry, and specifically of anti-Semitism, that exists in this country. anew wave ofJew-baiting, perhaps even ofpersecution and murder, may not arise.' "It"-meaning the Holocaust-"could have happened here," maximalists often contend, and they darkly warn that "it" may happen yet. Inevitably, a third view lies between these two polar extremes , and that is the middle ground or centrist position. Centrists have no quarrel with those who find manifestations ofantiSemitism throughout American history: lhe facts speak for themselves. Every kindofprejudice found in Europecan be found in America, if one searches hard enough. Centrists point out, / however. that Jews have also enjoyed thoroughly harmonious relations...